Discourse on the Method
The Discours de la méthode, with full title Discours de la méthode pour bien sa raison et chercher la conduire verité dans les sciences (Eng. " Discourse on Method, to use his reason well and to seek the truth in the sciences " ) a philosophical and autobiographical work of the French philosopher René Descartes.
It was first published anonymously in 1637 in Leiden in French and was therefore philosophical layman. 1656 was followed by a Latin version, which was published in Amsterdam.
Work context
The Discours includes Descartes ' discussion of skepticism and the Aristotelianism of the Scholastics. Starting from a general doubt on the traditional truths, but also on their own judgment, it is Descartes goal of finding irrefutable true propositions. Surrounded by descriptions of his intellectual autobiography describes in detail Descartes doing one of the earliest programs for scientific investigation of nature. Therefore, the Discours is one of the origins of the philosophy of science.
The Discours is a methodological preface to three natural-philosophical treatises Descartes ', issued jointly with him: La Dioptrique, Les Météores and La Geometry tools. These studies, the refraction of light, celestial phenomena and analytic geometry to the object ( in the geometry of the Cartesian coordinate system is introduced ), already provide an application of this method is: By mathematical modeling natural phenomena are determined by means of general rules, after surveying and by gradually calculation and automatic inferences are applied to the individual case.
Together with the Meditations on First Philosophy, Principia Philosophiae and the Regulae ad directionem ingenii the Discours forms the basis of the known as Cartesianism form of rationalism.
From the IV part of the Discours de la méthode the famous quote is " Je pense, donc je suis " (Eng. "I think, therefore I am" ). The " Cogito ergo sum ", however, comes from § 7 of the Principia Philosophiae of 1644th
Construction
The Discours itself consists of six parts, the classification proposed by Descartes in his preface.
The original can be found, in contrast to modern issues, but no sub-headings. Descartes has chosen the form of an autobiography of the Discourse, but in fact it is a rationalist manifesto: By Descartes describes his own intellectual career, he provides reasons and describes steps to recover from the prejudices of his time distance and rationalist philosophizing.
Summary
Reflections on the Sciences
Descartes describes the initial situation: In all sciences, but also in terms of morality and religion, meet the inquisitive numerous competing theories without their rival claim to validity could be decided. Only in mathematics seems no disagreement on the validity criteria to prevail, so that the scientific community about the priority of discoveries, not to alternative systems competes.
Main rules of the method
These negative findings Descartes establishes the need for a new beginning: the historically traditional, contradictory figure of Sciences is to be replaced by a systematic. Through the system, contradictions and gaps should be show more quickly. For the new foundation Descartes formulated four rules:
This problem solving strategy is Descartes already realized in the ancient geometry.
Some moral rules
These rules can indeed be used to solve problems scientifically, but they require time to analyze and answer the basic questions. Until it becomes a world view that can also have action-guiding function, Descartes recommends a provisional morality, which is based on a deliberative and Extreme -avoiding conformity to the environment. A similar morals had also recommended the skeptic Montaigne. Descartes explains such skepticism, however, for being - with the rules to all questions, even normative, can be answered truthfully.
Foundations of metaphysics
Descartes goal is thus the " search for truth ". This goal he goes methodically so that it everything that can be doubted, at first rejects. Descartes observes, first, that external experience, conclusions and even phenomenal consciousness does not satisfy this criterion:
Since the senses can deceive us sometimes, so they are not certain. He also notes that formally correct logical conclusions of the traditional syllogistic nevertheless can lead to incorrect results. So, too, are not certain. Third, it is even possible that we have the same thoughts in a dream as in the waking state. From this he draws the conclusion that all contents of consciousness can be as good illusions.
But excluded from that reservation is the formal act of thinking ( here doubting ) itself Doubting doubting presupposes a subject, thinking a subject thinks. The finds in the famous formula "I think, therefore I am" ( " Je pense, donc je suis " ) its expression. ( In the Principia Philosophiae (§ 7) states: Cogito, ergo sum. )
From the certainty that has awareness of its existence, he makes an example of how certainly to us to be a truth in general. All judgments about things that claim truth must be clear to us in a similar manner and are evident as the sentence: "I think, therefore I am."
The awareness, certain facts only clear and evident evident when it is in a position to these issues (meaning: determined by characteristics and distinguishable from other, clara et distincta ) as clearly and distinctly to recognize and that is, their special quality perceive compared to the usual doubts. It has the ability to distinguish certainty from doubt. Descartes believed that this ability comes along that awareness from the outset has an idea of perfection, which is the scale or the evaluation criterion to classify and contents of consciousness can: knowledge and certainty are more perfect than doubt. The idea of perfection comes from God; here but not in the way that he had, in our consciousness, planted as a single idea in us, but rather the fact that the consciousness when it perceives God, perfection must be recognized as an attribute of God ( and this term then in other contexts may continue to use ).
Or vice versa: As the concept of perfection is present in our consciousness ( provable ), Descartes draws the conclusion that God exists necessarily - and recognizable exist for us, because how else awareness should come to this concept and how without him to be able to detect at all? That awareness, however, is able to recognize something that shows the evidence of the phrases: "I think, therefore I am" and " A perfect being must exist."
In the following section, these two results from the fourth and fifth sections are now linked: What we record clearly is true. God is the guarantor of the truth.
So: what do we capture clear, comes from God. In the last section Descartes engages once again to the dream argument of the beginning. The first conclusion was yes, that all knowledge of reality is open to doubt because we - could fool - like a dream. But now that the existence of a true and perfect God seems to be derived from the concept of perfection, God can be postulated as a condition of the possibility of true knowledge, although the imperfection of man must be given as a cause of false knowledge.
Nature Philosophical questions
In this section, Descartes performs his method with two examples: first, he tries to refute Harvey's theory of blood circulation, on the other hand, he determined the difference between humans and animals new. While animals are biological machines, the man shows that he has a soul (res extensa ) causes his body movements that go beyond the natural determination. So it is speaking is an expression of thought, that, according to Descartes is a state of soul substance (res cogitans ).
Reasons that prompted the author to write
Although it is already a well-respected scholar, Descartes recognizes that its services are not outgrow a superior intellect, but have their origins in his ability not to be blinded by overdetermination. Furthermore, he goes step by step, each step must be clear and distinct. In this paper, he presents his analytical method and shows in a wide range of their application and their performance.
Descartes raises the question of how secure knowledge in philosophy, natural science, medicine and ethics can be won.
The result of his considerations is that, firstly, a secure foundation is needed, through which all knowledge can build. On the other hand it requires a method to use the same to can be secured progress to further insights from the foundation of. The result is a hierarchy of the sciences and fields of knowledge. Thus philosophy is the foundation ( or root ) of all findings. This is the basis physics as a tribe, about which one can eventually lead to certain knowledge of medicine, mechanics and morals. Since the correct ethics can only be found at the end of the process, Descartes also introduces the need for a provisional morality for the transition period in mind.