Head (linguistics)

The term head ( in the Austrian parlance as principal; engl head. ) Is in linguistics refers to a component of a composite expression that defines the grammatical properties of the whole expression. The head term can hereby apply equally to syntactic and morphological units and thus represents a fundamental structural principle for the entire grammar dar. It is assumed that usually all of the attributes of a composite name derived from a head (which then gives a " endocentric construction "); to theories differ in the area of ​​syntax in whether non- endocentric structures only represent a rare case, or whether they can be completely excluded. In the morphology exceptions are more common, especially in the form of exocentric compounds.

A system that can expand as a head to a complex expression in the syntax and thereby determines its characteristics is formulated from the X -bar theory.

• 3.1 Projection of features
• 3.2 heads and dependent elements

General definition

A head is generally speaking the one ingredient in a compound expression that specifies the properties of the whole expression. On the one hand, this means that the head is at the core of an expression and determines which dependent items you may also have and which are not. One such item that the dependent counterpart forms in a composite expression to the head, is also called dependens. - Secondly, the head plays a role in dealing with grammatical features ( eg part of speech or Flexionsmerkmalen ): The head is the part of a composite name which carries the same features themselves, which also contributes to the overall expression and thus the origin of the representing characteristics of the overall expression. It is said that projected the head or inherited its characteristics to the overall expression.

Under the head principle refers to the principle that the characteristics of a complex expression normally originate from a head in its interior ( and therefore also agree with this ) must, in other words, that constructions are not normally exozentrisch.

Heads in morphology

Composition

Particularly clear examples of the head principle evident in the regular discharge of compound words ( compound words ). Here one finds that the Germans the right part has the characteristics of a head (unless the special case of exocentric compound word exists ). For example:

Slipper (N, mask )               / \       House ( N, neuter ) shoe (N, mask ) In this example turns out to be the right term "shoe" as the head, because:

• It defines the category of the whole compound word fixed ( eg, N, that is, noun ( = noun), A = adjective, etc.)
• It puts more Flexionsmerkmale as genus of a composite noun fixed ( masc, fem, neuter )
• It may fix the meaning category, that is, the head refers to the type of object referred to by the compound, and the Erstglied determined these, only closer.

However, the last point is only valid in cases (as here), where the compound is interpreted on a regular basis; it is next to it also possible that a composite as a whole word acquires a new meaning, which no longer can be seen from the significance of the head - for example, " kindergarten" is not a garden, but generally indicated a care facility, while " vegetable garden " interpreted regularly can be. However, if the compound as a whole acquires a new meaning, this does not change the head principle for the grammatical features, such as part of speech or gender.

The operation of the head principle is clearly demonstrated on the basis of contrasts like the following:

Slipper (N, mask ) ( = " a type of shoe, namely in the house" )               / \       House ( N, neuter ) shoe (N, mask )             Shoe House ( N, neuter ) ( = " a kind of home, namely one where shoes are sold " )               / \       Shoe ( N, mask ) House ( N, neuter )             Red ( N, mask ) (= ' wine which is red ")               / \       red ( adj ) Wine ( N, mask )            wine red ( adj ) (= ' red, from the color of ( red) wine " )              / \      Wine (N, mask ) red ( adj ) Accordingly, compositions of adjective and noun as a whole as a noun behave when the noun is the legal term but overall as an adjective when the adjective is right limb. This indicates that the head is always right.

The right limb, and so therefore the head of a compound word, a simple word root ( eg " aunt " in the example below) or a pre- compound noun ( such as " Children garden " ):

Kindergarten aunt (N, fem )               / \       Kindergarten ( N, mask ) Aunt (N, fem )         / \   Child (ren ) garden ( N, mask )   ( neuter )              Forest Kindergarten (N, mask )               / \      Forest (N, mask ) Kindergarten (N, mask )                           / \                    Child (ren ) garden ( N, mask )                    ( neuter ) Derivation

If an affix is used to derive from a root word, a new word ( Derivation ), this affix can also be considered as a head ( although other modes of representation are possible, see below). For example, the ending is " he " responsible for ensuring that a verb stem "show " (as he 'll show - s also included in the infinitive ) is a noun:

Pointer (N, mask ) ( = " a device which is used to slightly ( to display ) " )               / \       show - (V )? This case can be explained by the head principle, by the affix " he " perceives as a unit that the category feature of N ( noun ), and the additional feature of " masculine " itself carries and passed on in the form of a head on the whole expression:

Pointer (N, mask ) ( = " a device which is used to slightly ( to display ) " )               / \       show - (V ) - He (N, mask ) An alternative that is preferred in some morphology theories, however, to take the affix only as a sign for the placement of a rule that maps the original strain, such as pointing (V ), to a new strain pointer ( N). This method is effective if there is no isolable unit, which can be identified as carriers of the new category feature, for example, if the derivative is indicated only by vowel change in the interior of the root word (as in find- (V): Fund ( N ) ). A head usually has a isolable expression (otherwise are possibly more abstract representations using invisible heads conceivable ).

Possible exceptions to the Rechtsköpfigkeit

In some cases of derivation, it seems that even a left Attached element (prefix ) may be head. Examples are: the chatter, the screaming, the whining. The prefix Ge - for nouns that are generated from verbs is usually accompanied with the grammatical gender neuter.

Heads in the syntax

Projection of features

In a simple model of the syntax can be said that she finally governs the connection of words into coherent groups of words and sentences. Under this condition, a head in the syntax appears as a word within a contiguous phrase ( constituent ), so that the characteristics of this word are inherited to the entire group. Here, the same features are basically although relevant, were also considered in the morphology, namely categories (such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.) and Flexionsmerkmale. In contrast to the word education is handled in the syntax with features that are not inherent properties of strains (such as gender, which was seen in the examples of the nominal composition), but variable features, which are only assigned by syntactic rules, such as z. example case.

To determine heads in the syntax is primarily a breakdown constituents in a sentence, that is contiguous groups of words required, for example:

The man was pale The man paled He paled By substitutions of " the man " with " he " and " blanched " by " blanched " can two groups of words are identified. Since the word " pale " is a verb, and the phrase " blanched " fulfills exactly the same function, one can conclude that the latter are as much a feature of "verbal " has as a whole. As an adjective " pale ", this means that the verbal feature of the verb " was " must come, which is a head and thus projects his category on the entire unit. In the following, this feature is listed as [ V]:

Wurde_bleich [V]       / \     was [V ] pale [ Adj ] This representation shows the analogy to the head principle in morphology; a difference, however, that in the syntax of German heads are not limited to a single relative position, but depending on the construction type can be left or right. If a word group is complete with respect to the inheritance of a trait category, it is referred to as ( syntactic ) "Phrase ". Assuming that the verbal feature does not spread to an even larger group of words in the above example further, would the term " blanched " therefore be described as verb phrase, that is, as a completed syntactic unit whose head is verbal.

Analogously, one can conclude that the phrase "the man" the same category feature has as the pronoun "he", by which it was replaced in the example above, and also matching Flexionsmerkmale as " masculine ", " singular " and " nominative ". Furthermore, " the " a certain ( definite ) article and the personal pronoun "he" is also definite. According to recent analyzes of generative grammar is therefore the item to be recognized as head of the entire unit, because all of their features can be traced back to this. The category feature of the article is usually with " D" ( for English, " determiner " ):

Der_Mann [D ]       / \     the [ D] man [ N] Older analyzes that assume that here N instead of D was the head are also common; for a basic illustration of the head principle can be left open, this alternative here. In the variant shown is the phrase "the man" now an "Article phrase " or " Determiner Phrase ", ie a closed syntactic unit whose head is nominal - determinative.

Among the most controversial issues of syntax which the problem is whether sentences are phrases that have a head. The wide variety of options have been considered: that the sentence is a projection of the verb ( a verb phrase, which also includes the subject ) that the sentence is a projection of an abstract feature (like " finiteness " or " infinitive " ) or that sets exocentric constructions. ( See the main article)

Heads and dependent elements

Another property that can be found on syntactic heads and which is different at first glance from the projection of features, the selection, the ability of heads supplements with specific semantic and grammatical properties is demanded. The concept of selection here refers to the fact that this property is rooted in the importance of the respective head. It is a property (i.e., the syntax, each lexemes ) for each individual head may be different pronounced, in contrast to the principle of inheritance feature that takes place automatically in each syntactic connection.

Examples:

Put the beer in the fridge         cool the beer              - foam These three different built verb phrases in the infinitive shows that it is " set" a special property of the verb to require two additions, namely a direct object and a direction indication (which may, at least not in this meaning of the verb can not be omitted); the verb " cool ", however, only requires a direct object, and " foam " the verb none at all. In this respect, therefore has a head (appropriate verb ) the ability to define properties of the entire phrase.

In addition to this process of selection of supplements heads appear also with other types of companions that are not strictly required, but only modifying the significance ( or adjuncts in the traditional Germanic terminology " information " ), such as adverbs. Even those are in a more general sense the head as a " dependent " element ( " dependens " ) are compared ( this generalization is used in dependency grammar for syntactic structure structures).

That a head or other materials in the area of ​​its projection selegiert, can be found also for the heads of morphological units in principle. Derivational usually require a base (parent ) with a specific category feature; and, although the head of a compound word not usually be Erstglied selegiert (e.g. in any of the examples given above ), there is the special case of Rektionskompositums where this is still the case.

Related uses of the head term

As the head of a syntactic phrase is a unzusammengesetztes element in the first place, "head", in particular in relation to the X -bar theory is also used to refer to the plane of projection of the syntactic word ( symbolized by the notation X °, for any part of speech X, in contrast to the phrase (XP ) and intermediate projection plane (X '). This speech met, for example in the concept of head movement.