History of measurement systems in India

A certain standardization of Indian weights and measures can be demonstrated already for the earliest time. Over the centuries, an indigenous system, supplemented by the dimensions and weights of the respective invaders developed. Regional units varied widely. The colonialists began 1833 Dimensions for British India to standardize and 1870 parallel their own imperial system. Since 1962, the metric system is in the Indian Union alone permitted. Later it was introduced in the other successor states of Bangladesh ( July 1982), Pakistan (1967 ), Maldives, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Burma is next to the United States almost the only country in the world that has not yet been converted to meters.

Antiquity

Excavations of the Indus civilization have promoted numerous weights days in Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Chanhu - Daro. These seem to have been standardized. They differ little from each other and also show for various times ( layers of the excavation ) hardly any difference. Most commonly, weight occurs from approximately 13.7 g. Rulers show subdivisions of 33.5 mm with minimal deviations.

On the basis of the Vedic scriptures (about 1500-500 BC), especially the Puranas, scientists assumed the 19th century that the original standard weight of the seeds of the RATI Paternoster pea ( Abrus precatorius ) has served. The weight of 320 Rati corresponded to 960 barley grains. The basis of the second unit Masha, the dried seeds of the green bean to (Phaseolus vulgaris) have served. Next is the dharana (of dhṛi "hold" ) with the synonym Purāṇa ( " old " ) in the law of Manu. In later Aryan influences suggests the use of the decimal ṣatamāna ( " 100 units ", ie Rati ) back. In Kamasutra a hollow or weight measure 1 Karsa ( about 11 g) = ¼ Pala = 1/ 32 is prashtra mentioned.

Subdivisions: 1 rati = 3 Yava ( " small grain barley ") = 18 Gaura - sarshapa = 54 Rdja - sarshapa = 162 Līksha ( " poppy seed ") = 1296 Trasareṇu. Multiples: 1) for copper: 80 Rati = 1 Kārshāpaṇa, 2) for Silver: 320 Rati = 160 Mashaka = 10 dharana = 1 Ṣatamāna, 3) Gold: 3200 Rati = 640 Masha = 40 = 10 Suvarna Nishka = 1 Dharana.

Later, similar based on other seed systems, such as rice (64 polished grains chowal = 32 non- dehulled Dhan = 8 Rati = 1 Masha ), wheat, mustard greens or assorted beans, show, if you take the traditional figure of the dried grains, a surprisingly little difference between them, and from the obtained standard coins.

In the "Law of Manu " is found for times following classification: 18 Nimesha ( wink ) = 1 kāshṭha, 30 of these = 1 Kala 30 Kala = 1 kshaṇa, 12 Kshaṇas = 1 Muhurta, 30 Muhurtas ( 5.832 million times wink ) make a day or night.

For not falling under Aryan influence Magadha Empire ( around 550 BC ), the following relations were calculated on the basis of a Sanskrit text: Rati 163840 = 32768 = 512 Masha Pala = 16 Maghada Pratha = 4 A'ṭaka = 1 Drona

The weights of the Indo- Greek (2nd - 1st century. BC) and Greco- Bactrian kingdoms in the north- west to Gandhara leaned against the drachma.

The early temporal dimensions of the island can be found in Abhidhānappadīpikā Moggallānas, a Pali vocabulary of the 12th century. They show in the names a reference to Indian role models, but not every unit was used for all goods: 800000 Gunja ( seed of Abrus precatorius ) = 400000 Masaka (Phaseolus sp.) = 160000 Akkha ( date Alica bellerica ) = 20000 Dharana = 4000 Suvaṇṇa ( for gold) = 2000 Phala = 1000 Nikkha ( a jewelry ) = 20 Tula = 1 bhara ( "load").

Have been considered at length dimensions is: 162 angulation = 14 vidhatti ("the margin ") = 7 Hattha or Rattana ( "Elle" measured from the elbow to the tip of the little finger ) = 1 yaṭṭhi.

Hindu system

The basic unit was the Tola ( Sanskrit: tolaka ), in classical Sanskrit literature, it is mentioned primarily as a weight for precious metals. About a context, the word origin with the Chinese tael has been speculated. The larger unit was the Seer ( sihr, Sanskrit: setak ), depending on the could contain 30, 40, 72, 80, 90 or 120 Tola.

The traditional names remained in southern India longer in use. Remained; : ( sheep or Ziegenbalg Mushti handful )-based measurements, particularly in remote areas with barter until well into the 19th century on common natural sizes.

The basis of the linear dimensions, as in Europe, the Elle Hattha (English: cubit, Sanskrit: hasta ), with 2 clamping ( Vitasti ) bezw. 24 finger widths ( triangulation ). The latter was further in 8 jo ( " grains ", Sanskrit: yava ) divided. As the smallest (imaginary ) unit was in the parāmanus size of an atom. On larger units formed four hasta a danda, 2000 by this one Krosa (kos) which thus was about 3650 m long. Four Krosa gave a yojana, which was divided into two gavyūti. Calculations of various texts compared with modern maps results in smaller lengths for the Yojana, about 13-14 km.

As square measure was derived: 10 Hattha = 1 ban ( "Bamboo "). 20 square -Ban = 1 Niranga.

Muslim system

In the Mughal Empire were the usual in Persia weights that one ( Maund ) and the seer ( Hindi: setak ). However, this differed regionally widely. So a Man ​​in Persian Tabriz had converted only about 3050 g, whereas it was almost 74 kg heavy in Palloda ( Ahmednagar ). For the units regionally different names were common.

For the reign of Akbar the division 1 Man = 40 Seer assigned to each 30 dam. The latter are in turn divided tank in 5 of 24 rati. Eight of these corresponded to a Masha, which were used as a basis for the standard coin. The Man Akbar had ≈ 25 kg.

The usual in Arab culture measure of gaz ( "Elle", also guz or Gudge ) became longer over time. Defined Harun al- Rashid's times to as formerly in Egypt and the Jews with 24-25 "fingers" ( ≈ 47 cm ), it was probably under Akbar 41 " fingers, " thus almost 87 cm. The definition of Sikander Lodi 'm Bahlol (1488-1547) determined the length of a gaz to 76.25 cm. For the early 19th century lengths from 74.2 to 85.6 cm are given. For the State Taxation was derived Bigha of importance. The fields were measured in Bengal than 5 × 6 " rods" ( or square) of 14 cubits, the length of which was so decisive influence on the size of a Bigha. The tax was calculated per Bigha, a shortening of the tail ( jurib ) could have massive tax increases result. The old - Bigha measure of Upper India and Patna corresponded to 2527 m², in Bengal, Bihar and Central India was the smaller Bigha of around 1335 m². In southern India was regarded as the surface measure Mauny of 60 × 40 feet. 24 Mauny formed a Cawney ( 5436 m² ), which corresponded exactly four Bengali Bigha. Another South Indian measure of length was the ady (feet to ≈ 26.5 cm) of Malabar. For area calculation was 24 square Ady = 1 Culy. 100 square Culy = 1 Cawney. In the Bombay Presidency the gaz varied from 45.7 to 68.6 cm.

Also common was the definition of a field for tax purposes by determining the number of seeds that was needed for seeding a unit area. This varied naturally huge. Manipulations were a lucrative source of income for a tax collector. In Mysore, where applied to cereals: 1 khandi = 20 = 80 Kolaga Balla = 160 seer, we took as a basis for non-irrigated land that could be planted with a seed khandi 64000 square yard, for irrigated land 10000 ( 8354 m² ) the control of the latter was therefore 6 ½ times higher.

In later times can be roughly four regional divisions for weights distinguished: 1) for Bengal: 1 Man = 40 Seer ≈ 36.2 kg, 2) Ajmer and Merwar: 1 Man = 20 Seer ≈ 18.1 kg, 3) and Gujarat Bombay: 1 Man = 40 (small ) Seer ( 30 pies ) ≈ 12.68 kg (for 1 Bombay Maund was obtained in Bengal around 1 Maund 1 Seer ) and 4) Southern India ( locally different): 1 Maund = 15 - 64 Seer.

20 Maund were called Kandy ( khandi ). The names puseri, Dhuri and vis (numerous spelling variants ) is usually based on five Seer, but were at different venues each with 4, 4 ½, 5 ¾ correspond, 10, 11 or 12 Seer.

Capacity measures as independent units were completely unknown in Bengal. In the south and west you referring instead to a vessel which took a certain weight of a grain mixture. The most common were Mercal (Madras 1821 ≈ 12.29 l) and para ( Calcutta: Ferra ). In Ceylon took a Mercal ≈ 13,09 l 1 PaRa had 2 Mercal.

British India

The British in Bengal calculated for accounting purposes from approximately 1787 Factory maunds of the three 200 lb. were equated. This was in the usual bazaar weight ratio 100:116. An " old bazaar Maund " had so 74 lb. 10 oz. 10 ⅔ gr

In Madras the Maund corresponded to only 25 lbs. The seer in Madras was divided into 8 to 10 Pagodas Pollam. 10 Madras maunds thus corresponded in Bengal around 3 Maund 1 ½ Seer. On the Malabar coast, however, was 2 ½ Pollam ( = Fanam ) is equal to a Seer. It followed: 1 Tolam ( = maund ) corresponds to 10.506 kg ( 23.192 lb). More local Maund, often in use until the conversion to meters, weighed converted: Bengal ( Bazar ): 37.206 kg, Bengal ( Factory): 33.824 kg, Calcutta ( Factory): 37.711 kg, Karachi: 36.240 kg ( = 80 lb. ), Pune: 35.722 kg, Surat: 16.308 kg, Mysore: 10.993 to 12.642 kg (1 maund = 40-46 seer ).

By the British for the first time January 1, 1826 was a legal standardization according to the avoirdupois system. By the Bengal Regulation VII of 1833 (effective 1835), the dimensions and weights for all business operations of the government were standardized. Act XVII of 1835 set the roughness weight new Rupee ( Rp ) is equal to 1 Tola grain to 180. The old sicca ( ​​from 1773 ) and the rupees of Mughals were replaced, market prices, even today, in many cases expressed in weight per unit rupee, eg " 8 seers of rice, " that is, a change to "4 seer " per Rp correspond to a doubling of the price. The provision began Maund (Hindi: Man) equal to 100 lb, bezw. . 35 seer almost equal to 72 lb. This newly defined " British Maund " was named to the distinction also new bazaar Maund. This standard correspond 100 old factory maunds 90.744 new Maund. Based on new Tola ( T. ) was (100 T. = 100.185 of the old Sikka weight): 1 lb. = 32 d, 1 kg = 85.745 T., Cologne mark 1 = 20.044 T. salt was traditionally calculated with 82 T. per seer. So a Maund salt was 2 ½ % heavier than the standard unit.

In French India was a Hath equal to 2 empans of 12 inches, equal to 51.97 cm.

The Indian Weights and Measures Act created the legal basis for the British ( "imperial " ) system. Where 1 kg = 2.205 lb. = 35.274 oz. = 564.384 Dram = 15432.358 Grain. Its units were particularly common in professional and official sector, the markets remained the old units permitted and in use. Details on distance along the country roads was in miles and furlong. The ratio 1 Maund = 40 Seer = 100 lb. Seer and 1 Tola = 80 = 2.0571 lb. was committed.

The Standards of Weights Act (1939 ) came into force in 1942. The Indian system Tola - Seer - Maund was besides the British on. Individual provinces enacted as part of their own self-determination legislation for calibrations, etc., such as Bombay Weights and Measures Act 1932, or the Punjab Weights and Measurements Act (No. 12 of 1940), which already allowed a partial conversion to the metric system. Especially the Indian Decimal Society, with its Secretary General, PN Seth, campaigned for the change.

Metric system

In 1955, the Indian Coinage Act, by which the Indian rupee was changed on April 1, 1957 decimal denomination was issued. The Government of the Indian Union adopted in 1956 a law on Standards of Weights and Measures, which established the beginning of the conversion until October 1958. As of October 1960 had to be labeled metric, since April 1962, the standard the only permissible. Was Changed in the ratio 1 Seer = 0.93310 kg, 1 Tola = 11.66375 g states enacted additional rules.

The current basis is by the same law (No. 60) of 1976, thereby assumed the SI units and amended in 1985 by implementing regulations. There were issued numerous supplementary provisions. The National Physical Laboratory of India, is the defining authority, calibrated weights and measurements are produced by the national coins. The Legal Metrology Act (2009) set the standard material for these weights of brass to steel.

Furthermore, the usual statement in lakh equals 100,000 crore and (= 100 lakh ) for 10 million. The usual case is used to, for example, 12 million are as shown: 1,20,00000.