Language
Under language is the amount that includes as elements all the complex systems of the communication. The term is usually used to indicate that concrete sign systems elements of this set (eg the German language, the programming language Basic); vice versa, indicating that these concrete sign systems satisfy the properties of a definition of "language". Another definition is: languages are ' the systems of units and rules that serve the members of linguistic communities as a means of communication ".
We distinguish a number of individual languages. In addition, they are divided in different ways (eg in constructed languages and natural languages ). Examples among people are the spoken language and body language ( difference due to acoustic and optical information transmission). The scientific discipline that deals with the human language in a comprehensive manner, the Linguistics ( Linguistics ). Even in the animal kingdom, there are systems of signs and communicative acts, which are called language.
Language and language use are also content from other sciences such as psychology, neuroscience, cognitive science, communication science, rhetoric, philosophy ( philosophy of language ), media studies, semiotics, literature, science, speech science, religious studies, theology, anthropology and ethnology.
- 2.1 Human spoken language 2.1.1 development
- 2.1.2 The communicative function of language
- 2.1.3 Language as a medium of thought
- 2.1.4 Language and Power
- 7.1 Papers
- 7.2 Books
Language as a sign system
Individual languages
In the specific sense, the word refers to a specific individual language language like German, Japanese, Swahili, etc. The spoken languages of mankind are classified according to their genetic relatedness in language families. Each language is made up of international unambiguously classified alongside Language codes according to ISO 639 Part standards. Of the roughly 6500 counted individual languages - according to National Geographic Society are worldwide in 2005, even 6912 languages have been actively used - are more than half of extinction, since they are rarely spoken and often passed not more children. It is believed that therefore in the next 100 years, a large part of the still existing languages will disappear. Currently, the most common 50 languages from approximately 80 percent of humanity as a native language are spoken ( and by around 90 % as a second language), all others (still) existing languages of the remaining 20 percent of the people.
From an anthropological and sociolinguistic perspective, the languages used by people in everyday life are divided in terms of their formation in naturally formed ethnic languages and consciously worked out, so plan constructed languages. An example of a typical and widespread plan language is Esperanto.
Ethnic languages and planned languages can also be close to each other, such as in the case of the Germans in the Bible translation by Martin Luther. This variety of German made so far is a planned language, as it was a constructed form, which should be understood everywhere. As a result, these " planned" variant of German was ultimately the lingua franca and is now perceived as natural language. Variants of ethnic languages are sometimes called " unified " in the course of language policy measures to a variety according to plan, as in the case of the Ladin in South Tyrol / Northern Italy.
Constructed and Formal Languages
Unlike the natural individual languages are formal languages by logic and set theory writable ( enumerable set of basic expressions, clear rules of composition, well-formed expressions). See, for example, in theoretical computer science, especially in computability theory and the application compiler. Programming languages such as ALGOL, APL, Fortran, COBOL, BASIC, C, C , Ada, Lisp, Prolog, Python, Java, Perl, among others are designed for specific purposes and are based on theoretical and pragmatic considerations.
The mathematician Paul Lorenzen pursued his project of Ortho language program, the construction of a unique and methodically built up a language of science, but even " in the methodological philosophy highly controversial " was.
The description of formal logic principles are applied to the natural language; Has pioneered to the American logician Richard Montague.
Human spoken language as a sign system
The human spoken language can be understood as a sign system (see semiotics ), consisting (see semantics), which means grammar rules ( syntactic ) can be linked to an infinite number of statements from a variety of characters that have meaning. Ferdinand de Saussure conceived of the sign language as a necessary connection of sound image ( signifier = the signifier ) and presentation ( signifie = the signified ), ie as something mental.
Language as action
Human spoken language
Development
His ability to speak different anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens ) from the apes. A rich variety of language could be made only by anatomical changes in the course of evolution of man. Prove skull finds that the arching of the palate and the lowering of the larynx were completed approximately 100,000 years ago.
In the Kebara cave near Haifa in Israel a hyoid bone was found in a 60,000 year-old skeleton of a Neanderthal, which suggests that this man was capable of spoken language. Anthropologist from Durham suggests that the ancestors of the Neanderthals could speak more than 300,000 years ago. They compared the size of the " hypoglossal canal ," an opening in the skull base, in skulls of modern humans with various fossils. According to these anthropologists a great hypoglossal nerve is the basis for a sophisticated language. Through this opening at the base of the skull, the nerve through which the brain controls the movement of the tongue runs. The scientists found that the hypoglossal canal was similar in Neanderthals as in modern man. In the pre-humans of the genus Australopithecus that lived around two million years, it is, however, much smaller.
How pronounced the speech ability was developed in the common ancestor of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, the Homo erectus, is unknown. It is also unknown how "advanced" the morphological and functional potential for differentiated linguistic communication 200,000 years ago during the transition from Homo erectus to early anatomically modern humans was. The enlargement of the pharynx ( as a resonator ), the lowering of the larynx and the already in Homo erectus incipient swelling of the palate, leading to greater freedom of movement of the tongue. In the interaction of pharynx, oral and nasal cavity, soft palate, lips and tongue, the generated by the vocal cords to root vowels and consonants are modulated.
The communicative function of language
Language is a form of communication between people. An example is the definition of Edward Sapir ( 1921): "Language is a purely human capacity for, not instinct rooting method for the transmission of thoughts, emotions and desires by means of a system of freely created symbols".
Many media theories - especially the technical - hold on language not as a medium but as a communication tool, ie as a neutral condition allowing for the actual media. Language acts such views after only representation or transmission of mental entities ( concepts, terms ), the latter are thought to be independent of the language. We therefore speak of representation means.
Language as a medium of thought
Written and spoken language is a medium of thought and conception of the world par excellence: This definition, as first presented Wilhelm von Humboldt, assumes that language for all complex activities and thought processes of the people is essential. Language is thus not only a " subsequent " means of communication between people, but any view of things and states of affairs in the world is linguistically structured. Things and facts are brought by the linguistic conception of the world in meaningful relationships. Man, therefore, does not live in a sensual -conceived world, he only agreed on which subsequently and occasionally by means of language, but he lives "in the language ".
Language and Power
Language can be used to intimidate and to obtain power (eg bullying, denunciation, humiliation ). As suppression mechanisms in oral communication presented Berit Ås the five techniques of domination out. The reference to such effects existing language use can allow it to make such a connection in the first place thematisierbar.
A well-known example from the literature for the attempt to exert influence through language to the minds of the population, is the 1949 published novel "1984 " by George Orwell. In this work, a fictitious dictatorial regime the controlling is described which uses a prescribed constructed language called " Newspeak " to direct communication and the thinking of the population in tight, controlled channels.
The psychologist Steven Pinker looked at the so-called " euphemism treadmill " ( euphemism treadmill ) - the effect that euphemistic neologisms recordings all the negative connotations of the words they replaced. A German word in this context is the euphemistic word " restructuring ", which should replace the word " closure of premises and facilities ", but it took over the negative character.
Body language
As a body language or nonverbal communication ( communication without words ) that part of interpersonal communication is called, which takes place not speaking. Carrier corresponding messages are gestures, facial expressions, eye contact or non-linguistic Lautierungen such as laughter, but also psycho- vegetative manifestations such as blushing and the design of the appearance of clothing, accessories, hairstyle, including
Linguistics
The science that deals with all aspects of language and language use, as well as individual specific languages , the linguistics or linguistics. The General Linguistics examines the human language as a system and general principles, rules and conditions of language. The Applied Linguistics addresses issues that are related to the specific use of language. The Historical Linguistics is concerned generally with the development and the genetic relatedness of languages, with the development and modification of individual language elements as well as with language change. The comparative linguistics developed differences and similarities between languages , classifies them according to certain criteria and tries language universals, ie properties that have all or many languages together, to elicit.
Within linguistics there is a variety of large and small sub-areas, which deal with specific aspects of language, such as with spoken and written language, with the relationship between language and thought, language and reality (see philosophy of language ) or language and culture. The use of language normative aspects is described in dictionaries ( spell checker dictionaries, style dictionaries, etc. ) and use grammars.
Language in the animal kingdom
Animals communicate through their body language signals, fragrances, sounds, their coloring, including The corresponding signals in the animal kingdom are set out in the rule; they can not be readily combined freely to new meanings or statements.
Some animals may sound sequences such as human form, if necessary, ie linguistic utterances of people imitate ( parrots, seals, dolphins, crows, elephants).
The waggle dance of bees is often bee or even called dance language; however, it is questionable whether and to what extent in the so -intentioned real instinctively regulated signal behavior is a similarity to the human language is. Whether birds, dolphins or primates know a human spoken language similar language and communicate with their help mutually, is discussed. This is apparently merely a one-tier and one-sided signal path between transmitter and receiver pet owners do like him at dressage example of dogs advantage.