Marketing

The term marketing or (deprecated) Absatzwirtschaft referred to a the corporate sector, whose task (function) it is to market products and services ( offer for sale in such a way that buyers perceive this offer as desirable ); on the other hand, this term describes a concept of holistic, market- oriented corporate management to meet the needs and expectations of customers and other interested parties (stakeholders). Thus, the understanding of marketing towards developed by a surgical technique for influencing the purchase decision ( marketing mix instruments ) to a leadership conception, the other functions such as procurement, production, management and staff with includes.

• 9.1 internal effect
• 9.2 visibility

Marketing as a business function

In business administration, marketing is a part of the overall business process. This starts with the planning of a concept, and then the purchase of raw materials and primary products (intermediate consumption ), it follows further leads to the production ( production of goods or services) and ends with the marketing ( marketing and sales ) of the created operational performance. In addition, supporting processes such as innovation, financing, management or Human Resources. The sub-processes are also referred to as an occupational or business functions. This means that all processes run as smoothly as possible, it requires the management functions. This includes planning (including objectives), organizing, leading and control ( success and progress monitoring ) with regard to the objective. The marketing process itself can be represented as a marketing plan: (1) identification of opportunities through the market, customer and competitor analysis including market research, (2) setting goals, to ensure that the invested funds flow back, (3) selection of appropriate strategies for achievement of objectives, (4) implementation of the strategy with the marketing mix and finally, ( 5) assessment of this whole process and all decisions taken. The topic of marketing got in the science and practice of great importance with the change from the wartime economy of scarcity ( demand is greater than supply ) towards the so-called affluent society ( supply is larger than demand ) since the mid- 1950s. This trend was accompanied by an increased competition for customers and was reinforced by the two oil crises of the 1970s. For example occurred in 1969, the establishment of the first Chair of Marketing ( Heribert Meffert ) in Germany. Since then, the marketing is considered as a key success factor for the long-term " survivability " of companies competing ( dominance of the marketing function). The graph is the relationship between marketing and other business functions illustrate.

Variety of marketing definitions

Marketing is defined differently depending on the viewing perspective. Christian Homburg and Harley Krohmer lead in determining the marketing concept of the three central historical marketing definitions to an inclusive definition of marketing together:

Activity -oriented definition

An activity-based marketing definition understands marketing in the core and a bunch of market- oriented business activities. More generally, one can achieve an exchange in this regard marketing as a process of planning and implementation of the concept of price management, advertising activities and distribution of ideas, goods and services, with the purpose of satisfying the desires of individuals and organizations, designate. The activity-based definition was created in the 1970s and was strongly influenced by the development and emphasis of the marketing mix.

Relationship -oriented definition

Relational marketing definition focuses on the objective of marketing to build customer relationships to maintain and strengthen, namely by using mutual exchange and fulfillment of promises (and thus build trust ). However, the relationship-oriented definition does not replace the activity-based definition, but acts as a supplement to her. Has come about in the late 1980s in the context of relationship marketing, which then replaced the focus on the individual transactions with the customer in favor of focusing on the sustainable relationships with the customer.

Management -oriented definition

The management -oriented marketing definition sees marketing as " conscious market-oriented management of the entire company [ or as ] market-based decision making in the company " ( Meffert, 2000). Are important in this definition include a corporate environment that shape the direction of our market activities relevant; Thus, this definition includes both the concept of the marketing mix, market aspects of the implementation, the idea of market-oriented corporate management and relationship marketing, which explains why this definition is seen as a complement to the first two. Developed the implementation -oriented definition in the 1980s, after which it has, however, experienced a scientific penetration only in the 1990s.

Integrative Marketing Definition

The integrative marketing definition of Homburg / Krohmer sees marketing as a concept that essentially has two facets, one corporate and one outside the company:

• The company's external facet sees doing marketing as the design and implementation of market-related activities of a provider with respect to ( potential) buyers of its products. Such market-related activities in this context include both the systematic acquisition of information about market conditions and the design of the marketing mix.
• For the company's internal facet in turn consists of marketing in creating the conditions within the company for the conduct of market-related activities. This includes in particular the management of the company according to the guiding principle of market-orientation.

Both approaches aim of marketing in this case on the optimal design of customer relationships to further the goals of the company.

Alternative Marketing definitions and its creation process

Philip Kotler, American economist and professor of marketing at the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, defines marketing as:

"Marketing is a process in the economic and social fabric, through which individuals and groups to satisfy their needs and desires by creating products and other things of value to offer and exchange with each other. "

One of the functional perspective beyond definition understands by the customer-and market -oriented management to achieve the corporate goals.

"Marketing is the conceptual, conscious market-oriented corporate management that aligns all business activities to the needs of current and potential customers in order to achieve the corporate goals."

In recent publications, marketing is understood for example as a management comparative competitive advantages by using the marketing tools.

2004, the AMA passed to modernize its 20-year old definition and to change from the postulate of a unidirectional promotion for dialog-oriented concept of customer relationship management. In view of the newly highlighted Konsumentenzentrierung not only the interests of the company, but the interests of all stakeholders have been focused as a target of the marketing process. Thus, in the general school of thought draws a the propagated by the capital goods suppliers overarching approach. So marketing is defined as " seen organizing function and process bundle in order to create value on a way for customers and customer relationships, communicate and provide, so that the organization and its stakeholders benefit from it ." A more recent definition of the AMA in October 2007 reads: "Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and Exchanging offerings thathave value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. "

Many marketing researchers see marketing as a business in the core of thinking. Thus, " marketing are seen as parts of market-oriented entrepreneurial thinking style, which is characterized by creative, systematic and sometimes aggressive note. " Can

In the vision of the German Marketing Association is marketing "is understood as a market-oriented corporate management that aligns all relevant business activities to the wishes and needs of stakeholders. "

An active marketing is particularly suited to buyers' markets, ie markets with an excess of supply over demand, with the condition supply to demand, in contrast to the orientation pursued in earlier purely internal corporate goals and circumstances, such as production capacity increased importance.

According to the specificities in trade Schenk has developed a beyond mere customer orientation beyond four markets approach to retail marketing, " the commercial establishments are for the trade marketing subjects own marketing strategies and tactics, not only in its focus on markets, but to all four markets in the trading operation ( market, procurement market, market competition, internal market). "

Even outside the corporate world are now using non-profit organizations ( "Non - Profit Marketing" ) marketing techniques. Ultimately appears an exact definition or delimitation of the marketing concept for the BWL is not necessary as long as there is a basic consensus on the key tasks of marketing in literature and practice.

Historical development

The term " marketing " was first used in 1905-1920 to U.S. universities. In Germany, Ludwig Erhard organized in 1935 on behalf of the Nuremberg School of Economics, a research assistant of Wilhelm Vershofen, the first marketing seminar in Germany. At the time referred to as " heel Economic Course ", this was a foundation for the NAA eV ( Nuremberg Academy of Absatzwirtschaft ) and the GfK eV from these later NAA GmbH and the Association for Consumer Research arisen.

An exception is the study of Stackelberg in 1939: In contrast to the then prevailing price theory based on price and quantity as the sole action parameter of things, he was aware of the first time quality variations and distribution policy. The birth of marketing came in Germany with the invention of baking powder in 1893 by Oetker. The retail product was offered through mass advertising for the first time, that gave him a work relief - of which he had not known until then that he needed at all. As the development progressed through inventions of new product variants on, the success of the offer extends into the present. At university level, marketing developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the construction of the first Institute of Marketing by Heribert Meffert at the Westfälische Wilhelms- University in Münster ( Westphalia).

The introduction of modern marketing concept was accompanied by changes in the markets, away from the sellers' market where the seller may largely determine due to the lack of goods and services, prices and conditions, towards a buyer's market, in which the variety of competitions more and more customers choosing allows, whether they accept the offer at all.

Manfred Bruhn describes, in particular for Germany, the following stages of marketing:

• Product orientation in the 1950s (pure production, due to the huge demand in the postwar period )
• Sales orientation in the 1960s (from production to distribution )
• Market orientation in the 1970s (market segmentation, specialization in various needs)
• Competitive orientation in the 1980s ( emphasis USPs )
• Environment orientation in the 1990s ( in response to ecological, political, technological or social changes )
• Dialogue orientation from 2000 ( interactive alignment of communication through the Internet, e -mails)
• Network orientation from 2010 (Web 2.0, social networking, word-of -mouth )

A similar division take Jean -Paul Thommen and Ann -Kristin Achleitner for the ( global ) historical development before:

• Customer Relationship Management
• Market orientation
• Production orientation
• Environmental orientation
• Sales orientation

Academic classification and sub-areas of marketing

Academic marketing is located in the area of special business administration, with the marketing part of marketing management is referred to, for example, at the University of Hamburg as a sales and is part of the general business administration.

• Marketing Management (Marketing Management) or paragraph as part of the field of Business Administration
• Sales Management
• Social Networks and Marketing Communication
• Psychological theories in marketing
• Empirical Research Methods / Applied empirical research methods
• E-Business
• Media Management

Interdisciplinarity takes place especially in combination with ( sub-disciplines of ) psychology, media studies, and mathematics.

Marketing mix

The marketing mix is considered the easiest and most effective combination of " tools " or " instruments " for the practical implementation of marketing plans in companies or non -profit organizations. These facts explain the great popularity of the marketing mix in theory and practice. In 1964, Neil Borden suggested twelve instruments. This has then to four groups, the famous four Ps, summarized Jerome McCarthy. They are:

• Product ( Product Policy )
• Price (pricing policy )
• Promotion ( Communication Policy )
• Place ( distribution and sales policy )

The primary role of product policy is the specific product characteristics such as quality, service, technology level ( usually called in marketing "technology" ), design and make reliability so that they appear attractive in the subjective perception of the target group. For this, the pricing policy has to find out the price that customers are willing to pay for these product features. So it is with these two instruments of the marketing mix to the in the eyes of customers compared to the competition attractive price- performance ratio. For pricing policy and the design of the delivery and payment part (discounts, bonuses, discounts, rebates, etc.). The primary role of communication policy is to inform customers about their own supply and influence their purchase decision. This is part of the so-called communication mix. This is to be designed so that it has the desired effect (information and belief ) is achieved with the lowest possible cost. The distribution policy is about the efficient design of all activities on the way a product or service from the provider to the customer or user. There is a distinction between a logistic (transport and storage ) as well as a acquisitive ( attracting and retaining customers ) distribution. According to a contemporary understanding of marketing we no longer speak of distribution, but of distribution policy. The primary task of distribution policy, the efficient design of the sales strategy and the sales process, including selection and training of staff to promote sales expertise.

Marketing concept

Given the rapid social and cultural change is a marketing concept by Philip Kotler provide an answer to the question: " ... what philosophy shoulderstand guide a company 's marketing efforts? " The marketing concept of corporate governance was established by Kotler in the 1950s. Accordingly, the Company's success primarily by the market and customer orientation depends. In the historical previous periods of price and product orientation, it was primarily the economical mass production of cheap products. Situated in an economy of scarcity, in which the demand is greater than supply, quasi sold by itself In contrast, in a so-called affluent society applies ( supply is greater than demand ): "The marketing concept holds did the key to Achieving organizational goals is being more effective than Competitors in creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value to your chosen target markets. " and that is possible only through a holistic approach in which all business functions are aligned to the goal of market and customer orientation ( holistic marketing concept). The further development of the marketing concept leads to relationship marketing, whose primary goal is "to build mutually satisfying long-term relationships with ... customers, Employees, marketing partners ( channels, suppliers, distributors, dealers, agencies ), and members of the financial community ( Shareholders, investors, analysts ). Marketers must respect the need to create prosperity among all synthesis constituents ", in other words. On those responsible in marketing enormous challenges to come in the future.

Marketing Plan

The marketing plan is the goal- oriented application of marketing knowledge. A typical textbook on marketing such as the Philip Kotler Heribert Meffert or has well over 600 pages and is aimed at a broad, mostly scientifically motivated target group. Thus, for example, a start-up, a product manager or a specialist and executive power would be overwhelmed in marketing. Apart from this, about two-thirds of all managers a technical or scientific background and need compact, application-oriented marketing knowledge to under Objective agreements contribute to the success of the company afford ( eg, on the contribution margin or customer satisfaction) can. This task is fulfilled by various publications on the subject of marketing plan, as they are numerous available in bookstores or at industry and business associations. See also the founders of the portal of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology.

Dual management concept

Different views exist about is to see at what point an operational structure of corporate marketing. The so-called dual management concept shows that marketing has two basic functions:

Marketing is not just one of many corporate sectors. Marketing as a market-oriented corporate leadership is more important in the age of globalization.

There are several interpretations of the marketing concept. So marketing can be understood as equal line instance that includes the planning, coordination and control of all directed to the markets the company's activities.

Marketing can also be interpreted as a corporate philosophy. This marketing involves conscious market- oriented management of the entire company. This interpretation expands the market orientation to all people and functions that influence the success of a company on the market.

The simultaneous consideration of the two interpretations, that is marketing as equal line instance and as a business philosophy is referred to as " dual management " concept.

Corporate Identity

An important issue in strategic marketing is: How does a company presents itself as a whole to the outside world and inward to its employees? For this purpose, in the 80s, the concept of corporate identity was developed. The Corporate Identity ( CI, corporate identity) with its three sub-aspects of Corporate Communication (CC) Corporate Design ( CD ) and Corporate Behaviour (CB) systematically developed a unified, concise image of the company with external and internal effect.

Internal effect

Employees identify with their company. It creates a sense of belonging: the employee drives a vehicle manufacturer ideally a car of his company and not a competing product.

Visibility

The company will be presented uniformly to the outside. These include operating the business equipment with logo, color scheme, typography and layout specifications ( corporate design ) as well as a strategically closed perceptible communication policy with the other elements of the marketing mix is made available to market participants.

The communicated identity ( corporate behavior ), which is related to the other components of the CI with a coherent and consistent alignment of the behavior of an organization both internally and externally, leading to a unique and distinctive market presence. If the CI is consistent, the company appears more credible.

Marketing Topics at a Glance

Common extension to adjacent important functions

• Market research and public opinion polling
• Bottleneck Concentrated strategy
• Balanced Scorecard
• Quality Management
• Controlling in the form of specialization Marketing Controlling / market test (Controlling)
• Brand Management ( brand management )
• Staff management, equipment and process policy in the service sector

Marketing orientations

A basic distinction between the related to the marketing of services with paragraph marketing and purchasing marketing, which deals specifically with the activities directed to the supplier or suppliers.

The specific features of the trading companies, which (after Schenk) typically make four markets - sales, procurement, competition and internal markets -, is dedicated to retail marketing as a separate field of research. According to the site of the original industrial concept of market-oriented corporate governance occurs the concept of oriented four markets business management for commercial enterprises.

Among the various marketing orientations include the following:

• Trade Marketing ( an independent marketing of commercial enterprises )
• Marketing of Services
• Direct Marketing
• Geomarketing
• Ethnic marketing
• Gender Marketing
• Interactive Branding
• Industrial marketing (B2B Business-to -Business)
• Consumer Marketing ( B2C Business-to- Consumer)
• Local Branding
• City ​​Marketing
• Health Marketing
• Guerrilla Marketing
• Event Marketing
• Visual Marketing
• Technology Marketing
• Online Marketing

There are also special orientations that are not directly associated with the traditional marketing orientations, since they are not directly attributable to an output creation and marketing:

• Marketing inward ( in the context of corporate identity)
• Non -profit Marketing ( Marketing policies )

Recent research directions

• To measure objectively the decision behavior within the neuroeconomics
• Gearing of the new institutional economics with behavioral science approaches