Nicomachean Ethics

The Nicomachean Ethics ( ancient Greek ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια, Ethika Nikomácheia ) is the most important of the three surviving under the name of Aristotle's ethical writings. Since it shares with the Eudemischen ethics some books, they may have been compiled not by Aristotle himself in the form extant. Why Scripture bears this title is unclear. He may refer to Aristotle's son or father who were both named Nicomachus, or any other person of that name.

• 3.1 Classification of the soul
• 3.2 Ethical virtues
• 3.3 Dianoetic virtues
• 3.4 Pleasure and Pain

• 6.1 Primary Sources
• 6.2 secondary literature

The aim of the Nicomachean Ethics

The aim of this work is to give a guide to learn how to be a good person and how to lead a happy life. Because of this the concept of action is central, which is mentioned in the first sentence: "Every practical skill and every scientific investigation, as all action and select, strives for a commodity, as is commonly believed. " A Good can either only be there to promote another good ( it is then counted to the poietic act), or it can carry another good and " are striving for its own sake " at the same time (it has then practical character ), or it can be used as highest good, the ultimate goal of all action pose ( = absolute practical ). Thus the work is determined by the question, as the highest good, or even the ultimate goal, fundraising and how to achieve it.

Bliss

The first answer of Aristotle on the question of the nature of the highest good is that happiness ( eudaimonia ) is the highest good. It is a spiritual happiness. This follows, for Aristotle, the fact that the happiness for yourself is - it 's not like other commodities, merely means to an end. Unlike other goods we seek happiness for its own sake. It is, as Aristotle says, " the perfect and self-sufficient good and the ultimate goal of action. " ( 1097 b20 )

Ergon argument

To determine the actual content of bliss, Aristotle introduces the Ergon argument. Here he goes from a essentialism, which states that every being is characterized by properties which make it possible to distinguish this entity from other beings. He also pursues its own perfectionism, which makes the fulfillment of the determination of the essence depends on the education of its traits.

The essence of man is found in the consideration of its specific peculiar power which distinguishes him from other creatures. This is the activeness of the soul in accordance with the rational element ( the thought, of reason ), or at least not without it. Besides, it is crucial that the man uses his reason both consummate manner as brings in his whole life and more advantage. " And more " in this case means that even the legacies of people ( such as children ) are evidence of the intensive use of his reason.

These three arguments - activeness of the soul in accordance with reason, being active in a perfect way and in a full life - are universally regarded as the first definition of happiness Aristotle.

Division into three outer, physical and emotional goods

Is to obtain happiness, as Aristotle admits to not only rational activity of the soul, it also includes, first and second outer physical goods. External goods are about wealth, friendship, origin, descendants honor and a low -tuned personal destiny. Health, beauty, physical strength, athleticism meet physical or internal goods of the body. From the rational activity of the soul, the spiritual goods, the virtues arise.

The external goods Aristotle assigns to the random luck of eutychia. Physical goods are in part also of random depending (for example, under certain circumstances Beauty), but partly also to their own actions (eg sports or nutrition) due. Mental goods, however, can only be attained by really good people. It all adds a happiness that Aristotle in his work only briefly mentioned: the the " perfectly happy man before and after his life." This man is then truly happy, or else he is makarios.

Practical and theoretical life

Aristotle defines happiness as an activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue ( arete ) in a full human life. However, can not be achieved by each in perfect shape certain Dianoetic ( intellectual ) virtues. Therefore, there are two basic ways according to Aristotle, as a happy life is possible.

The most perfect happiness consists in the bios theoretikos, in the contemplative life. This includes scholarly activity, use of reason ( nous ) in the basic truths for the gain in knowledge, and attainment of wisdom. The other virtues are fully developed in this lifestyle, but are not the focus of action.

Because some people do not lend themselves naturally to this way of life, specifically because they do not have according to Aristotle in perfect form over reason and this can not be formed as a single virtue, there is a second life. The bios praktikos, practical life, is limited to the perfect use of reason in relation to contingent facts, ie on the use of wisdom and craftsmanship in conjunction with the ethical virtues.

Virtues

The virtues are spiritual goods. Aristotle divides them according to the soul in Dianoetic virtues which arise from policy, and ethical virtues that arise from the habit. In analogy to the mastery of a musical instrument you acquire the virtues by being exercised.

Division of the soul

Aristotle divides the soul into a specifically human, rational part ( λόγον ἔχον ) and an irrational part ( ἂλογον ). The irrational part of the soul ( ἂλογον ) consists of a vegetative part, which consists of growth ( αὔξησις ) and nutrition ( θρεπτικόν ) composed, but also the strut faculties of the soul houses ( ὂρεξις ). Up to this point the man is with the plants and animals on the same level, there are only heartbeat and metabolism as well as growth and reproduction ensured. Man, however, is also a reason and language being endowed ( ζῷον λόγον ἔχον ), his strut assets ( ὂρεξις ) is connected to the rational part of the soul. That's why he can emotions such as fear, anger, compassion, and other not control in their volume, but in the further " processing ".

The rational part has as well as the irrational share of the assets and strut is "place" of human reason ( λόγος ). This consists of two parts: the self-sufficient reason ( ἐπιστημονικόν ) and applied reason, so consideration ( λογιστικόν ) and counseling ( βουλευτικόν ). In the self-sufficient reason ( ἐπιστημονικόν ) it comes to science ( ἐπιστήμη ), philosophical wisdom ( σοφία ) and pure thought, that - detached from everything - complete spiritual self-referentiality means ( νοῦς ). It refers to the immutable existing things, to mathematics, the cosmos and metaphysics.

In applied reason it comes to practical skill ( τέχνη ), manufacturing craftsmanship ( ποίησις ) and wisdom ( φρόνησις ). It refers to practical life. The wisdom ( φρόνησις ) plays a major role because it acts back on the beam power. While all the previous virtues were dianoetisch, have thus arise directly from reason, arise in the interaction of wisdom ( φρόνησις ) and strut assets ( ὂρεξις ) the ethical virtues, which by decision ( προαίρεσις ) and habituation ( ἐθίζειν ) for attitude ( ἕξις ) are can. The wisdom ( φρόνησις ) brings the affective extremes that come up in the strut assets ( ὂρεξις ), in a virtuous middle ( μεσότης ). So they caused, for example, that man is neither cowardly nor foolhardy in his attitude, neither too coquettish yet to be argumentative. Be virtuous in Aristotle does not mean to be free of emotions, but to control his own emotions.

Ethical virtues

The ethical virtues relate to the passions and the actions that result from these passions. They consist in the taming and controlling the irrational, instinctual part of the soul. Here Aristotle posits an ethic of moderation. As to the ethical virtues, it is the right center ( mesotes ) take between excess and deficiency. The best way to illustrate this using the example of bravery. The bravery moves between the extremes of cowardice and rashness - neither cowardice is desirable, nor an exaggerated, irrational valor that identifies Aristotle as foolhardiness. The Brave, however, considers the right level. The situation is similar for other ethical virtues such as Liberality, prudence, proper diet, etc.

In order to understand and to the center ( mesotes ), you should have seen the irrational and instinctive activities of the human soul. So you get an understanding of the mesotes and could understand that the excessiveness of driving leads to nothing. The prudence will come when you understand that a boundless bustle and a perfect retreat of the "I " leads to nothing, and realizes that only the middle between two extremes ( mesotes ) counts as a proper measure.

The ethical virtues are valued by humans. They are therefore morally werthaftig. From value but can only be something that is not a spontaneous movement, but a permanent condition. Because of this, Aristotle defines the ethical virtue to a fixed attitude ( hexis ) (see also habitus ).

Dianoetic virtues

The dianoetic virtues according to Aristotle, can be divided into two parts: those virtues that relate to contingent facts, and those that refer to necessary facts. The former are the skill ( techne ), ie a specific manufacturing knowledge (eg the ability of the table Lerns ) and the far more important wisdom ( phronesis ), which controls all the ethical virtues and the correct application of this can be seen.

On necessary facts, the science ( episteme ), which means the ability of the proper closing, the reason ( nous ) and wisdom ( sophia ) relate. The reason is a kind of " intuitive mind " or a knowledge of the " top sets " ( 1141 a15ff. ) From which science can then draw conclusions. Because the reason as the only virtue can not be purchased, but each is given in varying degrees of way, its exercise is left to the beneficiaries randomly reserved. Science also relies on a superbly strong reason and wisdom is the presence of reason and science. Therefore, the life in the pure vision of truth ( theoria ), the bios theoretikos not be achieved by each (see the section on theoretical and practical life ).

Pleasure and pain

The ethical virtues are closely associated with pleasure and pain. The turn of the people for the worse Aristotle explains the fact that people seek pleasure and fear the pain. This natural behavior, it is important to influence through education for the better and to control. For this reason, he also justifies punishment ". They are a kind of healing, and the healing will naturally accomplished by the opposite "

But the practice of virtue is connected with pleasure and lust. Aristotle differentiated because of his theory of the soul between physical and mental pleasures. The physical lusts point to basic human needs, but should not, as practiced by the hedonists, be operated via the meaningful in this context measure. Spiritual desires can be combined with virtues, such as the desire of intellectual activity for the purposes of science or, more generally, the desire to do good. In this sense, a virtuous man will lead a joyful life.

Justice

" However, justice in this sense is excellence in perfect expression ... in relationship to the citizens "

" Since the unjust man disregards the uniform distribution of the goods, his or her pursuit of course depends on the possession of goods. "

" And therefore justice is the overriding among the advantages of the character, and neither evening nor morning star is so wonderful ' And in saying that:. , In fairness, any preference is decided .'"

"Justice is thus a center, though not in the same way as the other virtues, but because it creates the middle. The injustice, however, creates the extremes. "

See also:

• Portion of Aristotle in the article theories of justice
• Section theories of justice in the article Philosophy of Law

Of state doctrine

In the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle developed according to a ranking him known forms of government of their virtue. For the best form of government Aristotle holds the monarchy, which he compares with the caring care of their father over his sons. It follows the rule of the aristocracy as a most virtuous and fittest that their counterpart in - find the rule of men over women - according to Aristotle, based on natural preference. Finally, Aristotle praises based on a census constitution, which he calls timocracy, and compares it with the friendship between an older and younger brother.

The three virtuous forms of government is in Aristotle's scheme each a " degeneration" opposite. The monarchy might degenerate to tyranny, when the autocrat to his own advantage a tyranny erected - like a father treats his sons as slaves. The aristocracy Can you turn into an oligarchy, if a small number of non- virtuous, but greedy rulers monopolizing the rule and also broken the state farms among themselves. Aristotle tried as an analogy here the image of the rich heiress who, despite the supposed lack of the natural preference of masculinity force exerting on the basis of wealth and power. Democracy holds Aristotle finally for the "least bad" degenerate form of government, as they differed only in degree ( through lower restrictions on admission to citizenship ) of the timocracy. In Aristotle's parallelization of civics and family relationships democracy appears as a house, " where the Lord is missing", all are therefore equally " and everyone does what he likes. "