Al-'Awasim
The term al-' Awāṣim (Arabic العواصم, DMG al - ʿ awāṣim, literally " the protectors "; sing. al-' Asima ) designated a portion of that disputed border area between the Arab- Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire, which by itself Cilicia moved across northern Bilad ash -Sham to Upper Mesopotamia. It originated in the early 8th century, when the first wave of Islamic expansion was over, and existed until the mid-10th century when the Byzantines began a counteroffensive. While the chain of ' Awāṣim fortresses was those who ( from an Islamic perspective ) before the boundary, that was in the second row, the upstream castles and fortifications were right on the border as ath - Thughūr ( الثغور, AT ṯuġūr, Sing الثغر, AT TAGR, mouths, openings [ btw the Dar al - Islam and Dar al - Harb ] ) are known. The Byzantine side of the border ( the fortresses were called here ta stomia, τὰ Στόμια, the mouths / openings Public ) consisted of the military districts of the Kleisoura inhabited and guarded by the Akriten. The term Thughūr was also used in the border areas of al -Andalus and Transoxiana and revived in the 14th century by the Egyptian Mamluks, as these were the areas in northern Syria and the northern Euphrates under their control.
The Arab- Byzantine frontier zone
Shortly after the rapid Muslim conquest of Syria bildetet in Cilicia, a region between the two powers of that does not really was under the control of a power and was also devastated by fighting. The Arabs called this zone between al - Ḍawāḥī ( The outer areas) and the Byzantines ( ἄκρα τὰ ta akra, " The outer [ areas ]") Ta akra. Both Emperor Heraclius ( r. 610-641 ) and Caliph Umar ibn al - Khattab ( r. 634-644 ) made sure that this area remained a devastated wasteland, transforming it into an effective barrier between the two realms. Nevertheless, the ultimate goal of the Caliph was the conquest of the Byzantine capital Constantinople Opel, but after the second unsuccessful siege of Constantinople Opel ( 717-718 ) was changed the strategy: There are only made raids into Byzantine Anatolia and the conquest of all of Byzantium abandoned. The ' Awāṣim was becoming more of a solid boundary. Over the next two centuries, although changed a few border towns and fortifications the owner, but the border between the Caliphate and Byzantium did not change. Thus, the word got al - thughūr with time the importance limit such as in the terms Thughūr al - Islām (border of Islam ) or Thughūr al - Rumiya (border of the Romans ). The character of a frontier was strengthened that the country was gradually settled and fixed, especially after the Byzantines Cilicia during the reign of Caliph Abd al - Malik (r. 685-705 ) abandoned.
The Muslims settled in Cilicia, and put the Byzantine fortresses repaired. The process began under the Umayyads and was intensified among the first Abbasids, especially during the reign Haaroon ar - Rashid (r. 786-809 ). Thus, the Muslims built a line of fortresses in Tarsus on the coast to Malatya ( Ar. Malatiya, Gr. Melitene ) and Kemah ( Ar. Hisn Kamkh ) on the upper reaches of the Euphrates. These were located at strategic points such as the major trade routes and mountain passes.
The entire border zone was initially part of the military district of Homs ( Jund Hims ), an administrative part of Syria, and after 680 part of Jund Qinnasrin ( Gr. Chalkis ). Haaroon ar - Rashid founded 786 the Jund al-' Awāṣim that encompassed the entire area on the border of north and west to the Euphrates in the east. The southern boundary of the new Dschunds ran south of the city of Antioch on the Orontes ( Ar. Anṭākiya ), Aleppo ( Halab Ar. ) and Manbidsch ( Gr. Hierapolis ). Administrative center was Manbidsch and then later Antioch. The line of defense ( Thughūr ) beyond the ' Awāṣims included the cities Baghras, BAYAS, Gaziantep ( Ar. Duluk, Gr. Doliche or Telouch ), Alexandretta ( Ar. Iskandariya ) Kyrrhos ( Ar. Kurus ), Ra'bān and Tizin. The Thughūr was divided into the Syrian ( Thughūr ash- Scha'mīya ) and the obermesopotamischen Thughūr ( Thughūr al - Dschazīrīya ). The Amanosberge formed the approximate boundary between the two. There was no clear capital, important cities were Tarsus and Malatya. Sometimes, these regions have been 'managed Awāṣim and in the 10th century, the terms Thughūr and were ' from Jund al - Awāṣim interchangeable. The third Thughūr al - Bakrīya As the Byzantines was undertook raids into Armenia in the early 10th century in the region of Diyarbakir furnished.
Mopsuestia ( Ar. al - Maṣṣīṣa ) was the first Byzantine city that has been inhabited and built by the Arabs again. In the year 703 300 soldiers were quartered here, and the figure rose under the Abbasids in 4000. Adana ( Ar. Adhana ) and tarsus followed at 758-760 and 787/788 after. Tarsus has quickly become the largest Arab city in the region and had a garrison of soldiers 4-5000. Other small but important strongholds in Cilicia were Anazarbus ( Ar. 'Ayn Zarba ), al - Hārūniya, founded by Haaroon ar - Rashid, and al - curing material Gubair Tall al - Sawdā. In addition, small all over Cilicia fortifications were still scattered, where only a few soldiers were stationed. In the more mountainous regions in Upper Mesopotamia, the main strongholds were in the fertile valleys, namely: Kahramanmaras ( ar. Mar'asch , gr Germanikeia ) Adata ( ar. al - Hadath ) with 4,000 -man crew and Malatya, the between Byzantines and Arabs was changed and / hosted 758 4000 soldiers in the year 757. Other smaller forts in Upper Mesopotamia were Salaghus, Kaisum, Zapetra / Sozopetra ( Ar. Hisn Zibaṭra ), Samosata ( ar. Sumaisaṭ ), Hisn Qalawdhiya, Hisn Ziyad and Erzurum ( ar. Qālīqalā, gr Theodosiopolis ) and Kemah far north. According to the scholar ibn Ja'far Qudama belonged to Thughūr al - Bakrīya Samosata, Hani, Malikyan, Gamah, Hauran and al - Kilis.
" ... Of all the major cities within the borders of Persia and Mesopotamia, and Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Morocco, has no hospitality Tarsus ' where the religious warriors from different countries live. And if they once reached Tarsus, they settle there and serve the garrison; among them prayer and worship are held very diligent; come from everywhere donations to them, and they get great alms; also there is no Sultan, who does not send auxiliary troops there. "
The caliphs populated the area with settlers and soldiers from Syria, but also Persians, Slavs, Christian Arabs and even people from the eastern part of the Caliphate: settlers from Khorasan, Turks and Indians. The soldiers had less tax (instead of Haradsch they only had to pay tithes ) pay higher wages and got a little bit country awarded. In the early days of the Abbasids, there were about 25,000 soldiers, half of which from Khorasan and the rest of Syria / Mesopotamia originate. They were all came voluntarily, lured by the jihad against the Byzantines and the high salaries. In the 9th century, the annual raids on Byzantine territory took on a ritual character. According to ibn Ja'far Qudama there were the following pattern: A first raid took place in the spring ( 10 May-10 June ), when the horses were enough food, followed by the actual raid in the summer ( July 10 to September 8 ). Sometimes there were then in the winter ( February, March ) is a third raid. In the words of Islam connoisseur Hugh N. Kennedy, " the ṣā'ifa ( Sommerraubzug ) was as much a part of the symbolic and ritual functions of the caliph as the organization and management of the annual hajj to Mecca ." But all this meant a great financial burden for the Abbasid state. During the reign Haaroon ar - Rashid, brought the Cilician part of the ' Awāṣims per year 100,000 gold dinars. This money was spent on public works, salaries and espionage. But the cost of the annual raids amounted 200-300000 Dinars. The Mesopotamian part of the ' Awāṣims threw about 70,000 dinars from taxes. Because of the cost by soldiers and fortifications devoured this part in addition to the 70,000 still 120-170000 Dinars.
The border zone was highly competitive. In raids followed counter- raids and looting. Forts often changed hands and as a result, areas were depopulated and often had to go to a conquest or reconquest be resettled. Nevertheless, there were also signs of prosperity, based on agriculture and trade, especially during the second half of the 9th century. Then the frontier was an important trading post between Basra on the Persian Gulf and Konstantin Opel. Over time, the territories gained a certain independence on the border. These new centers were Tarsus, Malatya and Erzurum. With the decline of the Abbasids after 842, the cities on their own had to defend against the Byzantines. With the Battle of Lalakaon in 863, the Byzantines broke the power of Malatya and slowly began with the conquest of the whole border strip. When the Abbasids had to fight from 928 still with problems, the dynasties of Ichschididen and Hamdanids took control at the border. The Byzantines conquered under General John Kurkuas the Mesopotamian part of Thughūr in the 930s. The resistance of the hamdanischen ruler of Aleppo Sayf al - Dawla ( r. 946-967 ) was short-lived: 964-965 conquered Emperor Nikephoros II Cilicia and shortly thereafter Antioch, while Aleppo had to pay from now on Tribute.
The Mamlukisch - Turkmen border area
The Mamluk al - thughūr wa - l-' awāṣim served to protect Syria from the Turkish empires (first the Beyliks, then the Ottoman Empire ) in Anatolia and the Caucasus. Like the earlier system was divided into a Syrian and Mesopotamian in a subregion, the Mamluk system. Across the border were the Mamluk vassals Ramazaniden and Dulkadir to protect the border. In addition, the Mamluks had to keep it under control established the two vassals in seven strategic locations garrisons: Tarsus, Ayas, Sarventikar, Sis, Darende, Malatya and Divriği. The scholar Ahmad al - Qalqaschandi lists the division of the ' Awāṣims as follows: eight districts in the Syrian part (Malatya, Divriği, Darende, Elbistan, Ayas, Tarsus, Adana, Sarventikar and Sis ) and three districts in the part of the Euphrates (al- Bira, Qal ʿ at ʿ Dascha bar and Ruha ). The Mamlukenreich was finally conquered 1516/1517 by the Ottomans.