Averroism

As Averroism is called a going back to the Arabian philosopher Averroes direction in the European philosophy of the late Middle Ages and the early modern period. She attracted because of the theological implications of the views which she represented or were assumed by her opponent's hand, a stir. " Averroist " is not a self-designation of the followers of this direction, but one of their opponents embossed in polemical term. As Averroes and the Averroists were Aristotelians, it is a flow within the Aristotelianism.

A significant part of the works of Averroes, who died in 1198 was the Christian scholar since the thirties of the 13th century accessible as Michael Scot had translated a number of sometimes extensive comments of the Arab philosophers to Aristotle's writings into Latin. The effect in the Latin -speaking world was enormous. In the late Middle Ages, the scholastics of Aristotle tended to as " the philosopher " par excellence to speak and of Averroes as " the commentator " par excellence. With " Averroism " but is not the general Averroes reception meant in their entirety, but only a number of theological and philosophical strongly controversial positions that are characteristic of the view of the opponents of Averroism for this direction.

Although Averroes was convinced his teachings stand in complete harmony with the Koran, found his philosophy in the Islamic world in the Middle Ages and in early modern times little response. Although he was appreciated as a legal scholar and listed in reference works as a renowned author, but his philosophical ideas were hardly noticed or were rejected. Therefore, one can not speak of an Islamic Averroism in terms of a philosophical or theological flow for the period before the modern era. However there was a Jewish Averroism in Spain and southern France Hebrew on the basis of Averroes translations. To distinguish from the Jewish Averroism lateinischsprachiger scholar is also referred to as Latin Averroism.

Conceptual history

The term " Averroist " (Latin Averroista ) is the first time in 1270 in Scripture On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists ( De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas ) of Thomas Aquinas testifies. Thomas coined him as a battle cry, which was directed against the persons so designated. Here, however, it was him not general polemic against Averroes and his interpretation of Aristotle or against the prevalence of Aristotle's body of thought in the late medieval university science. All scholastic scholars, even the Antiaverroisten, were in a sense Aristotelian because the writings of Aristotle were authoritative textbooks in the university system anywhere. The commentaries on Aristotle Averroes were recognized as fundamental; its content was largely uncontroversial or was not at least as offensive. The conflict concerned only certain points in the teaching of Averroes, which were controversial theological reasons. Therefore, also strongly influenced by Averroes thinkers were not necessarily as Averroists, but only those philosophers who held one or more of the then denounced as averroistisch positions. Even in modern terms are only the representatives of the then controversial teachings of Averroes to designate so.

The term " Averroism " was only coined in the 19th century by Ernest Renan, of his investigation Averroès et l' averroïsme published in 1852. The conceptualization is problematic since Renan has indeed referred individual theorems as specific averroistisch, but no medieval thinkers all these theorems represented together so that one can hardly speak of a unified doctrine. Renan was accused, he wanted to " find the Modern in the Middle Ages ". Since the 13th century were not applicable, the denounced theorems as defining characteristics of a specific Averroistic philosophy, this is known for this period in the recent research often - a proposal by Fernand Van Steenberghen following - instead of Averroism " heterodox " by one (from the theologically acceptable current teaching different) Aristotelianism. Often the opponents of the doctrines did not (or not primarily ) Averroes for the " heresies " responsible but Aristotle or " the Arabs ".

In the research literature, the term " political Averroism " has been coined. So some researchers call especially the political philosophy of Marsilius of Padua. It is assumed a connection between averroistischem ideas and the political attitude of this church critical philosophers. One can see an analogy between a Averroistic separation of knowledge and beliefs and the political pursuit of a disentanglement of church and state, and it is argued that the way of thinking of Averroistic Intellektlehre had been transferred to the political philosophy. However, it has not been able to determine the contents of the " political Averroism " precise. In more recent research, the use of this term is largely judged very critically.

Features

The disagreement between the thinkers who have been attacked as " Averroists " or as followers of " heresies " of Aristotle or " the Arabs", and their opponents primarily related to the following " Averroistic " positions that were particularly controversial and, therefore, in modern terminology, as the specific features of the Averroism apply:

  • The doctrine of the unity and uniqueness of the intellect (often inaccurately called " Monopsychismus " means ). The Averroists thought that the intellect - both active ( intellectus agens ) and the receptive, passive ( possible intellect ) - only one and thus in all human beings is the same, because it deals with general concepts, laws of nature and logic that always and are the same everywhere. You should actually not say " This concrete person Socrates recognizes something " but " in this man Socrates manifests itself as in all others of the general intellect, by bringing about a realization ." The intellect working reported the Averroists a key role in the world order; some even identified it with God.
  • The denial of individual immortality. According to a medieval church teaching the individual soul is immortal and the individual as such for his conduct before God is personally responsible. As far as the man is seen as a rational being, the intellect is responsible for controlling his behavior. If this however - as the Averroists my - one and the same, which is equally active in all people (as far as the physical conditions which allow the individual case ), loses the assumption that every individual is personally responsible before God for his actions and omissions of their basis. Death of the person, only the active intellect remains, which has existed before the conception of this man. So goes the individual as such, and only the general intellect is everlasting. Thus, there is no personal survival of death, and therefore no otherworldly reward or punishment. For this assumption fits the conviction of Averroes that God's providence refers to genera and species, not on single individuals. The fate of individuals, God takes no notice.
  • The eternity of the world. Just as Aristotle taught Averroes that the physical universe has no beginning in time and no end. A creation out of nothing, he refused; for him to creation happens at every moment. Although he said that his view is compatible with the idea of ​​God as Creator, but was here for Christian opponents of Averroism a contradiction to the biblical doctrine of creation and eschatology, which includes the announcement of a future apocalypse.
  • Autonomy of reason. The reason may be restricted in its jurisdiction by anything in its consequences, and it is responsible for everything that is accessible to you. This view is not specifically averroistisch, but is formulated especially sharp in Averroism.
  • The Averroists tended more or less to the view that world events is determined; at least they discussed deterministic ideas. Opponents accused them of, this assumption is incompatible with the doctrine of free will of man. Theologically, the freedom of the will was very important, because without them lacked the basis for an otherworldly reward or punishment.

History

Latin Averroism

As the works of Averroes from the thirties of the 13th century were known to the Christian scholars took them on first impartially and with great appreciation. Only after the mid-13th century influential theologians recognized the urgency of some of the set of Averroes Aristotelian doctrines in all its bearings. The Franciscan John Peckham and the Dominican Robert Kilwardby attacked this theologically problematic ideas sharply, and Albert the Great turned against the Averroistic Intellektlehre. 1270 Thomas Aquinas wrote his pamphlet On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists ( the traditional title, however, is possibly not authentic ). Thomas, who was himself an Aristotelian, thus played an important role in the fight against the heterodox Aristotelians. His decisive occurrence of helped that the impugned as Averroists philosophers came more and more under the suspicion of being a heretic. Roger Bacon also attacked the Averroists violently.

Conservative church circles were already long been suspicious of the Aristotelian natural philosophy. This led in 1277 to the condemnation of 219 Aristotelian and Averroistic theses at the Sorbonne by the Étienne Tempier of Paris Bishop. However, there was also in Paris continue Averroists that occurred more or less open to their views, and the dispute moved to France and England until well into the 14th century tempers. Man accused the Averroists, a "double truth " to teach - a philosophical, which described the real situation in their view, and thus incompatible theological, to which they only superficially known as the Church prescribed this. Although no Averroist has expressly spoken of a " double truth ," but in fact was in some respects a discrepancy between what was taught philosophically, and what the Church's doctrine said.

Typical of the Averroists of the 13th century was their exuberant expressed enthusiasm for the philosophy, understood it not only as a doctrine, but also as a way of life. In the scientific work they saw the unique nature- meaning and purpose of life, the highest good and happiness, and to the philosophers the elite of humanity that realizes the humanity in a perfect manner. So they linked up with an idea of Averroes which he had expressed in the prologue of his commentary on Aristotle's Physics. There he wrote, only the person who deals with scientific theory, whether in the real sense man, because only he realize the scale as possible in its natural perfection, and is there for him the happiness and eternal life.

Being the most prominent Averroists of the 13th century are Siger of Brabant and Boethius of Dacia. Siger invoked but more directly to Aristotle than to Averroes. As a radical Averroist emerged in the early 14th century John of Jandun who fell for other reasons with the church in open conflict. For him, in science, only the appeal to nature and reason was allowed, the doctrines seemed unconnected next to the philosophical statements. Johanns contemporaries Thomas Wilton and John Baconsthorpe were other leading representatives of the Averroistic ideas. On the side of the opponents to Ramon Lull profiled with a 1310 written script in which he would prove to be erroneous teachings of Averroes ( Liber reprobationis aliquorum of Errors Averrois ).

In Italy, the scholastic Aristotelianism was relatively late - late 13th century - a foothold, and with it also appeared on averroistisches ideas. The Aristotelian philosophy then found numerous followers, especially in Bologna and Padua, but only some of them took over the Averroistic Intellektlehre. Prominent Averroists were in Bologna Thaddaeus of Parma and Angelus of Arezzo, who pushed for the development of a closed system in the early 14th century.

The Italian Averroism had not only the ecclesiastical hierarchy to the enemy, but also important parts of the humanist movement. The humanists were disposed partly Neo-Platonic and antiaristotelisch; generally they judged the scholastic science, in the context of which the Averroism had spread, very critical. The Aristotelians among them sought direct access to the works of Aristotle and distrusted the medieval commentary, especially as Averroes, who has no knowledge of Greek, had relied on Arabic translations.

The Italian Averroists did not form a homogeneous group. There were usually secular -minded Aristotelians who expressed different views and Averroes did not worship as a special authority, but only in certain important questions more or less share his views. The research often used terms " Paduan Averroism " and " school of Padua " are therefore questionable.

In limited approval came Averroistic performances in Italy beyond the end of the Middle Ages. 1513 condemned the fifth Lateran Council, the doctrine of the unity of the intellect and Pope Leo X. proclaimed in the Bull " Apostolici regiminis " the individual immortality of the soul as a binding church dogma that must be taught in the universities. This church clarification reveals that there was an influential Averroistic flow at that time. Temporarily to hers Pomponazzi Pietro (1462-1525), who himself explicitly called himself a Averroists, so took an expression commonly used by opponents as a self-designation. The Intellektlehre and the question of the immortality of the soul were not discussed until the early 17th century. The last Italian Averroist was the teaching in Padua Professor Cesare Cremonini († 1631).

Jewish Averroism

The Jewish Averroes reception began in the 12th century by Maimonides, who knew at least a part of the oeuvre of the Arab philosopher and recommended for reading. From 1232 many works of Averroes were translated into Hebrew, some even more than once. The best known representatives of the Jewish Averroism were in the 13th century and in the 14th century Isaac Albalag Narboni Moses (Moses of Narbonne ) and Levi ben Gershon ( Gersonides Latin ). The Jewish Averroists grappled with the problem of the conflict between the truth claims of philosophy and revelation. Here Isaac Albalag represented a relatively radical variant of Averroism. The attitude of the other two thinkers was moderate.

Albalag emphasizes the elitist character of philosophy as opposed to the specific revelation for the masses. Faith and philosophy follow different paths; who is incapable of philosophy, remains dependent on the revelation. Once you have determined the truth in the philosophical way, you can also search it in the revealed scriptures and find by this interpreted symbolically, that yields a match with the philosophical thing known. Moses Narboni committed to a consistent Aristotelianism and looks in Averroes the best interpreters of Aristotle. Gersonides commented numerous writings of Averroes, but emphasizes the independence of his own philosophical position.

Until the late 15th century, the Averroistic flow in Judaism Spain and southern France remained alive. In Italy in the late 15th century taught Elijah Delmedigo that connected the philosophy of Maimonides with Averroistic thoughts and as Averroes translator ( from Hebrew into Latin ) operated.

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