Byzantine art

The Byzantine Art in specific is the art of the Byzantine Empire, which existed from the 4th century to the 15th century, but includes in addition, also the creation of art into the surrounding Byzantine art neighboring countries of the former Byzantine Empire in the Near East, the Caucasus, Balkans and the countries around the Caspian Sea and Russia. The Byzantine art survived the fall of Constantinople Opel and influenced especially the early architecture of the Carolingian and Ottonian and the church architecture of the upper Rhine country, and the panel painting of the High and Late Middle Ages in Italy, as well as the Marie painting the late Gothic and early Renaissance North West Europe. She is known for her works of religious architecture, Email, textile ivory -and silversmith 's and goldsmith's art and is associated in particular with the miniature, book, mosaic and icon painting.

The cover of the Byzantine Archaeology and Art History by the scientific disciplines is not quite uniform. Often it is of the chairs of Christian Archaeology treated (co-). In general, the history of the Byzantine Empire is treated often neglected in Germany.

3.1 icons

4.1 The early Byzantine architecture
4.2 The medium- Byzantine architecture
4.3 The monastery churches
4.4 The late Byzantine architecture ( the so-called Renaissance Palaiologische )

8.1 General Introduction
8.2 Exhibition Catalogs
8.3 Architecture
8.4 painting

Introduction

The out -building from the ancient art, the universal claim Christian thought following Byzantine art and culture to date has strong roots in the Orthodox in Europe. It forms since the Middle Ages also a second pole to the in Western Europe developed Romanesque and Gothic art and still also leads to an ideological and psychological delineation of the Byzantine rite belonging to the peoples to the west. It learns the Byzantine historical and cultural heritage of Europe to this day a step-motherly treatment in the consciousness of Western societies and the European identity. In particular, a negative attitude to Byzantine art in Western art criticism since Vasari by the Epitome Maniera Greca had been occupied.

The aftermath of the ' vasarischen ' devaluation of originality and evolution, in particular the Byzantine panel painting remained by attributes such as rigidity, persistence time and schematism still effective, which should assist an artistic superiority to this, unlike the "free" Western artists and artistic styles, therefore, However, the quality of the effect spiritualized world of Byzantine icons, frescoes and mosaics long was not able to interpret them correctly. Also went by the influential work of Edward Gibbon from a discrediting effect of the Byzantine era, which was seen as " Millennial decay " of the Roman Empire in the decline of ancient art. Only with the modern and abstract painting at the beginning of the 20th century Byzantine painting tradition was rated more positively and use their image construction and image type by Western artists as a template, and in general the importance of Byzantine art and culture to the West in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance found.

The best known modern artist whose work was, among others, not only inspired by Byzantine sources, but even influenced, Andy Warhol, as in the portrait Gold Marilyn Monroe, which follows in the schema and type of Byzantine iconography.

Lines of development of Byzantine art

Early Byzantine Art and the Age of Justinian

The Early Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire was in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages the dominant culture of the Mediterranean region, which later sustained fertilized by teaching the ancient tradition and science the European Renaissance.

As difficult the separation of the " Byzantine " from the " ancient " art proves. The "golden age", the year of the reign of the emperor Justinian, is characterized in its imperial monumentality committed interpretation of pictorial representation and architecture of the forms of late antique art. The worship of the emperor as Vicar of Christ is going to see some researchers believe as a continuation of the Roman imperial cult. It is found by monumental sculptures since the time of Constantine Constantine column and the ancient imperial cult adhering portraiture in ivory, coins and mosaics (eg San Vitale ) again. Even Justinian I donated to the Augustaion a today lost Victory Column ( Justinian column) on which the monarch was mapped in a larger than life Display tab. In daring construction of the Hagia Sophia as the new main church of the Christians, a characteristic of the first period of early Byzantine art blending ancient times ( marble columns of ancient temples ) and new, Christian- oriental elements is formative. In the provinces of churches still follow mostly the basilica scheme stands out in the only the domed church of San Vitale ( Ravenna ).

Iconoclasm

Only after Justinian occurs Ostrom / Byzantium gradually in the Middle Ages and is increasingly removed from his late ancient roots. With the transition period from the 7th to the 9th century (see: middle Byzantine era ), which by the Islamic invasion, the restriction of the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, the Balkans and southern Italy, through the fierce theological debate during the iconoclastic controversy and the victory of the Ikonodulen who support the pictorial representation of religious scenes, acquired Byzantine art, the basic consolidation. With the adaptation of the cross-domed church created one of today's "valid" Directive of Byzantine art. The iconoclastic controversy ( 726-843 ) between iconoclasts and Ikonodulen to have the tendentious pictures friendly sources, allegedly shocked the whole kingdom; this is seen as an indication that the high importance the images (icons ) was attached. After that, according to certain rules ( canon ) was painted, which were always in the discussion and were written down in books painters. The book is the most famous painter of painters Book of Mount Athos of the painter monk Dionysius of Phourna, named Hermeneia. The monasteries had an enormous source of revenue: the veneration of images. In modern research, the iconoclastic controversy is however considered differentiated, so it's about unlikely that Leo III. has ever adopted a veritable ban on images.

Age of Macedonians and Komnenen

During the consolidation of the Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian rulers, in which the kingdom regained supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean and it came ( Macedonian Renaissance ) to a cultural revival, is in particular a courtly, heavier style collection, the medium Byzantine art (843 - 1204) characterizes.

With the break due to the Latin conquest of Constantinople Opel ( 1204), the center of Byzantine art moved from the capital to the peripheral centers remained under Greek administration parts of the empire (Thessaloniki, Trabzon ).

Palaiologische era

The foreign rule leads to complete degradation of Constantinople as a cultural center. The art of the Latin Empire (1204-1261) is characterized by a complete slackening of construction activity and artistic development. Especially blossoms by emigration of artists in the Orthodox Slavic Balkans, where especially through the rise and the adaptation of the Byzantine Empire by the cult Nemanjic, Serbia falls to the leading disclosure of Byzantine art of the era. In particular, the early Renaissance attributable frescoes in the cloisters of Mileševa and Sopoćani are examples, the antique style committed and far ahead of general interpretation by natural realism and vivid representation of the figures for the age of highest scenic achievements in Palaiologische Renaissance in Europe. Only with the Back obtain capital through the Komnenos dynasty is the new art institutions in Constantinople, Opel and re- center the Late Byzantine Art ( 1261-1453 ). However, the main works of this period in the capital by the Turkish conquest are largely lost.

The Eastern Orthodox art of Greece after the fall of Constantinople Opel is called post-Byzantine art. The Christian art of the other Orthodox countries, which is of Byzantine and post-Byzantine art very closely related, they usually referred to with the name of the present-day states (eg Old Russian, Old Bulgarian Art), although the present-day state boundaries do not correspond with the old and in spite of the great mobility of artists at any time.

Painting

In Byzantine art painting plays as fresco or panel painting, a prominent role and the icon represents, therefore, the symbol of the Byzantine art dar. The pictorial representations was bound to the theological mediation of Christianity to the faithful. The worship of images in Christianity is almost as old as the religion itself, the first expressions to the picture, there were in the 4th century, when Christianity rose up as the state religion of the Roman Empire. There seems to have been a representation need first. In the 6th century, the time of image-worship in Christianity began as a predominant and ecclesiastically approved custom.

First, the ideal of the educated iconographic figure in the religious sphere was the true face of Christ, the " vera icon", on the " Veil of Veronica ", which was created as a symbol of truth of the archetype. The Vera Ikon (from the Latin vera - "true" and Greek εικόνα - " image ", ie " true image " ) is so named because they claimed not created the tradition of men, but by God to have been. These archetypes absolute beauty influenced than ideal forms of portraiture, the artistic world. The cult history of the icon begins with these miracle images that seem capable of supernatural favors. So it was desirable in early Christianity that the pictures agreed to by performed miracles. At the same time, a margin for artistic exploration of the concept of non- man-made image opens.

Through the mediation of a direct communication between the individual and God, without the involvement of third parties and without intellectual effort, a canon of images as standardized depictions of saints, which was in a Byzantine church of fundamental importance.

Icons

Architecture

See also Main article Byzantine Architecture

The Byzantine architecture is a coherent architecture essentially. Your vault seem to be supported from the top without possessing weight. The columns are not seen as supporting elements, rather than hanging roots or herabsinkende arms. The architectural view of a building as something down aspiring activity is consistent with the hierarchical thinking. There is no facade, all wealth is focused on the spiritual core of the building. Most churches are cuboid from the outside and have a central dome or more domes, in which the average outer surmounted. The churches are simple. Only in the palaiologischen time ( the late Byzantine era ) the facade is brought some variety. The periodization corresponds to the basic scheme of Byzantine art was the regard in particular to the periods of the greatest construction activity and is significantly correlated with the economic relations of the empire. As a separate periods, the periods 375-600, 775-950, 1025-1200, and 1250-1400 Connected to the dynastic situation. This is also confirmed by statistical methods, the classical subdivision of early Byzantine architecture as well as the ages of the Macedonians, Komnenos and Palaiologos and their overlap particularly between the architecture of the Macedonians and Komnenos, and the Komnenos and Palaiologos.

The early Byzantine architecture

The Early Christian architecture forms a source of Byzantine architecture. After the legalization of Christianity 313 ( by the Edict of Milan) and the change to the new capital, Constantinople Opel, the demand for representative buildings for the new religion abruptly, with pagan building types were taken ( basilica, central building ).

The Basilica, in ancient meeting room or covered market, became the main type of sacred architecture.

With the basilica as sacred building you took over in the early Middle Ages, especially the Mehrschiffigkeit and exposure through the clerestory ( lying above the columns nave wall). In the early days of the basilica was often unfunded, ie open at the top to the roof. The apse was mostly in the east. In her stood the bishop's throne, there were benches for the clergy, often altar and lectern. As in the western early Christian basilicas was located in the west of the narthex and an atrium

Characteristics of the central building were the centralized, mostly point-symmetric, axisymmetric rare floor plan, mostly covered with a dome.

From the ( Roman, ancient ), the central building (Byzantine) central- developed with cross ground plan by extending through aisles. In the combination, in the 5th century was the domed basilica and the domed cruciform church.

Important examples of these buildings can be found in Ravenna (San Vitale, Apollinare Nuovo, Apollinare in Classe ) and Istanbul ( the former Constantinople Opel ) and other places.

The middle Byzantine architecture

The end of iconoclasm in 843 and the justification of the Macedonian dynasty in 867 by Basil I ( 867-886 ), an uneducated soldier who became a successful general, and finally ascended the Byzantine throne, stood at the beginning of a rebirth of the Byzantine Empire.

The architecture of the Macedonians begins with the construction of the now destroyed Nea Ekklesia (Greek Νέα Ἐκκλησία, " New Church " after conversion to a monastery later " Nea Moni " ) I. Basil 876-880 as the new Hagia Sophia in the southeastern part of the Grand Palace. The layout of the five-domed Church of the Nea Ekklesia as Vierstützenbau, the barrel cross, carrying the dome is supported by four pillars, or piers, is influential for all Byzantine cross-domed churches that time and may also include in the Balkans and Russia. The Nea Ekklesia took in the Byzantine court ceremonial to the 11th century a special position. The precious relics of the three crosses of the crucifixion of Jesus were taken from the treasury of the palace in the Nea and celebrated in a multi-day festival of the court and the emperor in a lavish ceremony performed. The Nea took during this period by the number of relics a prominent position. Among other things, here the relics of sheep mantle of the Prophet Elias, the table of Abraham, where this is said to have entertained the three angels, the horn Samuels, with whom he is said to have David eingesalbt, and the relics of Constantinople were kept the Great. Pilgrims of the 12th century also reported that the rod of Moses and the Cross of Constantine in the Nea were shown. The oldest surviving example of the middle Byzantine church architecture in Constantinople Opel is dedicated to the Virgin Mary Constantine Lips Church. Here, in virtually all of these churches fünfkupplige the nave is complemented by edge spaces.

While the most important monuments of early Byzantine art had been public buildings, are the important monuments of this time on private character, ie they were the dignitaries and court officials subject who had access to the palace. The social base of the " imperial " art had been reduced. As the majority of church buildings was private, they made the monastery churches place.

The monastic churches

Byzantine monastery churches are almost always domed cruciform churches. They form a square with its corner spaces in which a Greek cross inscribed and are usually modest. This was due to the fact that technical difficulties with the size increase, on the other churches were built mostly for numerically small orders. The dome rests on four arches, which are elongated in the direction of the cross by four equally long barrel vault. The approximately square interstices between the arms to fill the corners. The roofs of these rooms are kept low, so you can see the cross from the outside. About the corner spaces between the cross arms or the arms of the cross itself can occur four additional, smaller domes, so that a total of five domes tower above the church. The four-column type can be regarded as a subspecies of the cross-domed church: With the four pillars of the dome of church pillars and not by pillars is supported, so the church is usually smaller and higher and does not contain any galleries. Thus, the separation between the corner rooms and the main room is canceled. Another subspecies is the handling church. The arms of the cross and corner rooms here make a deal which is often separated from the main room by Tripelarkaden.

The late Byzantine architecture ( the so-called Renaissance Palaiologische )

Remain the architectural styles of the previous epochs obtained: Cross dome, four pillars and handling church. The dimensions are modest and the exterior gets new, colorful accents through various layers of brick and freestone. The cross-domed church continues to remain popular. One of the innovations is that the churches are moved on three sides with a handle. It also be converted churches. In addition, the decorations are varied. The buildings are less regular. The joy of growing large domes. Of importance, the Palaiologische Renaissance remains primarily through the internationalization of Byzantine art. You no longer restricted to the narrower field of the Byzantine Empire and their artistic centers in Constantinople Opel, Thessaloniki and Mount Athos. Due to the attendant in the Slavic countries and the fact that these are often economically and politically vital as the remains of the late Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine art also opens new impulses. Although the architecture, particularly in Russia and Serbia draw on Byzantine models, but developed especially after 1375 trends which bear both in architecture and painting felt a new manuscript. In addition to the churches of the Morava school but also the innovations in fresco painting of the Renaissance Palaiologischen are characterized by greater individuality, which tends to a greater humanism and interprets the often diagrammatic specifications new.

Reception of Byzantine art among the Slav peoples

Hardly anywhere else, the Byzantine art proved as durable as among the Slav peoples of the Balkans ( South Slavs ) and Russia ( Eastern Slavs ). The fertility manifested in local modifications which are obvious especially in architecture. The established traditions developed partly to own style forms of Byzantine architecture, as in Serbian -Byzantine style, through an independent development and in the last stage of Byzantine art in the 14th and 15th centuries in the Morava school a model-like architectural style for neighboring countries give ( Moldavian monasteries, Wallachia ).

In particular, is caused by the stages relocation of art centers in the Balkans (Serbia, Bulgaria) and to Russia during the late phase of the Byzantine Empire a permanent artistic development of the countries that endures beyond the existence of the Byzantine Empire and today part of the cultural substance countries.

Many Byzantine artists from Constantinople and Thessaloniki Opel had during the Renaissance Palaiologischen at courts Slavic royalty, for example, designed Greek fresco painter at the court of the Serbian ruler Stefan Uroš II Milutin the numerous royal monastery foundations ( Gracanica ). Thus the Byzantine influence (clothing, title) as well as the legislation were also reflected in all the details of court etiquette. During the Serbian medieval state Stefan Uroš IV Dušan under Emperor briefly the main power of the Balkan peninsula, the Greek influence is prominent feature of the court, which is led by Constantinople model. Dušan titled as Basileus of the Greeks and Serbs. With the Despot Stefan Lazarević (1404-1427) the most mature phase of the Serbian -Byzantine art, which reached a courtly quality of the architecture to the Morava School, which characterizes the Church Style in Serbia today begins.

In architecture, Russian and Serbian Churches ( Gracanica, Visoki Dečani, Kalenić ) follow by emphasizing the vertical, while Byzantine originals often know no amplification of the vertical component, a modified scheme. The architecture in Russia and Serbia takes on influences of the West ( Romanesque, Gothic ), remains the Byzantine central building with a rare or five domes ultimately loyal. Only the buildings of the Raška School betrayed in plan a stronger Romanesque influence ( Studenica Monastery ), but are displaced at the end of the 13th century by the Kreuzkuppelbau. The development of the architecture of the Balkans in particular emphasizes the colors of the facades and enhances the vertical component more and more, so that form a culmination of a thousand years of Byzantine art, the more dynamic the ecclesiastical architecture in the original buildings of the Morava school.

The Fresco painting reached between the 13th and 15th century in Serbia a high level. With the frescoes Komnenzeit in Studenica Monastery ( 1170 ) and monastery Sopoćani (about 1265 ), which were created by Greek fresco painters of ancient grandeur, the development of this art reached a climax. The frescoes of the Palaeologi are mostly conservative (Ohrid, Gracanica ), but reached in the late phase of the 14th century and first half of the 15th century in the Morava school a new quality ( Kalenić, Manasija ).

The iconography is generally more arrested the Byzantine models. With Andrei Rublev (Holy Trinity icon ) an icon painter will develop your own style, it was regarded as dogmatic model to emulate in Russia.

Aftereffects in the Ottoman Empire

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Byzantine architecture influenced significantly the Ottoman- Islamic construction of major mosques such as the Sultan Ahmed Mosque ( the "Blue Mosque " ) that was created on the model of Hagia Sophia. Important are the particular imperial mosques of the 16th century ( Bayezid II Mosque ), which are in the era of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent by Sinan ( Şehzade Mosque, Suleymaniye Mosque and Edirne Selimiye Mosque ) is a constant grappling with the art of justinianschen age. The obsessive examination of the model of the Hagia Sophia has thereby contributed to creatively original architectural masterpieces that belong to the world art.

Venice and the West

Byzantine cultural influence has at different periods also enriched the art of Western Europe. In particular, the Byzantine art is indeed a the Mediterranean culture arrested shape, but also France and the German Empire attacked elements of Byzantine art on.

In Italy, the Byzantine art, however, was partially parallel, especially in panel painting and mosaic art, represented with the Romanesque and Gothic to the Renaissance into it. In particular, in Venice, the most closely associated with the Byzantine tradition state that was both historically connected as a former colony, and by the close trade contacts and the Venetian possessions in the Levant Byzantium, it has also come to a spiritual penetration of society. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 by the guided of Venice Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade arrived numerous artists and art treasures from Constantinople Opel, especially to Venice, as the quadriga of the hippodrome in Constantinople Opel ( today at the St. Mark's Cathedral ) or the Pala d' oro ( also Saint Mark's Basilica ).

When asserted, purely Byzantine architectural forms in the West, special occasions were for the most necessary. This is shown by the best-known example of this, St. Mark's Basilica and the Palatine Chapel. St. Mark's Basilica is built in the early Byzantine style of the 6th century as a shrine. Although this dates from the 11th century, he draws on the exemplary church buildings of Justinian I in Constantinople Opel ( Church of the Apostles ) and Ephesus (John Church ), although the Byzantine builder at the time of the establishment of St. Mark's Cathedral for 500 years did not establish comparable churches more. So this was taken as a model also for other buildings in northern Italy ( Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua ) as well as the domed churches in Aquitaine. Byzantine artists have worked for a long time in southern Italy ( Palatine Chapel in Palermo).

That the Byzantine art but has also had an effect in the Nordic countries, is particularly apparent in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen Cathedral Charlemagne, which was built according to the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, and variously in the age of the Ottos ( Ottonian Renaissance ), as Byzantine forms the central building with Romanesque churches in Cologne ( Gross St. Martin and St. apostles ) testify to the immense prestige of the middle Byzantine period.

A revival of Byzantine art can be observed in the romanticism of the 19th century. So I with several representative buildings with Byzantine style means ( Kämpferkapitell, mosaics, barrel vault ) as the main building of the University ( Friedrich von Gärtner ) and for Ludwig II the throne room have been built in the Neuschwanstein Castle in Munich during the reign of Louis Neoclassicism. A planned Byzantine castle ( Castle Falkenstein ) was not performed.

The best-known neo-Byzantine building is the Sacre Coeur Basilica in Montmartre, Paris. Here are Romanesque and Byzantine elements in an as " sugar baker's style " baptized exaggeration of classical forms combined. Was used that the neo-Byzantine style in much of Europe for new church buildings, also show the pseudoromanisch - Byzantine Ludwig church in Munich, as well as the monumental St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg, built uniting of Auguste de Mont Ferrand 1818-1858 as neoclassical Greek- Byzantine style elements. St. Isaac can claim as the largest Orthodox church also set a record, the Hagia Sophia was once held. Just the dome rises to 102 m.

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