Characene
The Charakene (also Mesene ), located on the Persian Gulf, was a small vassal state within the Parthian empire, whose capital Charax - Spasinu was an important trading center on the way from India into Mesopotamia and also on the Silk Road. The empire was built around 130 BC and ended with the conquest of the region by the Sassanids by 222 AD under.
The Parthian Empire was a feudal state, which was composed of various more or less independent vassal states. The history of these vassal states is often only survived in fragments. Their influence and interaction is poorly understood. The Charakene is one of those small kingdoms and belongs beside Hatra and Armenia researched a little better to, as the Charakene had its own coinage, and thus the names of rulers are at least known. Yet, little has been handed down and grasped from ancient sources, reflecting the poor state of research on Parthia in general.
- 2.1 prehistory
- 2.2 Foundation
- 2.3 First pre-Christian century
- 2.4 First and second century AD
- 2.5 Status of Charakene
- 5.1 coins
Geography
The Charakene is described by several ancient authors, mostly geographers, they usually assign Arabia. This is the region in the south of Babylonia, in modern-day Iraq, Iran and Kuwait. As boundaries are in the west the Arabian desert, called the Chaldean marshes and south of the Persian Gulf in the north. In the east the Charakene borders the Elymais, where Pliny even referred to as part of the Elymais. The capital of the Charakene called Charax - Spasinu and lay on the Shatt al-Arab (about 50 km north of present-day Basra ). The town was an important trading center between Mesopotamia and India. She was known in antiquity for its extensive levee systems that also were eponymous. Charax Spasinu - called palisade of Hyspaosines. The city could be localized in a survey and had respectable size (approx. 2.8 x 1.3 km). Walls made of earth still stand up to 4.6 m high. There are bastions seen. Other harbor towns were Forat, Teredon and Apologos. Forat comprised about 1.8 × 1.3 km and was thus a sizeable city. It lay just south of Charax - Spasinu. The city was Apamea, in which there is a foundation of Seleucus I, which was named after his wife, on the northern border of the empire. Pliny calls for Charakene still the places Barbatia and Dumatha, but which are attested only with him, and of which nothing further is known.
The whole south of Babylonia forming a alluvial, which was created by the deposits of the Euphrates and Tigris. Due to the sedimentary deposits of the rivers, and the combined here, the coast over time pushed ever further into the sea, and even in the Christian era was Charax - Spasinu no longer close to the coast, but at some distance, so that the lying on the sea and newly established Forat to another important port city developed. Two other rivers came from the east and joined the Charakene with the Elymais. It is the Karkheh ( antique: Eulaeus ) and the Karun. To the dominion of the rulers of the Charakene included the Omani, a well-known almost exclusively from ancient sources Arab people, which must have lived in the area between the Charakene and the Nabatean kingdom. Various islands in the Persian Gulf, most notably Bahrain, also belonged to the dominion of the Charakene. Where crowds charakenische coins, a building inscription of the king Hyspaosines, and here the palmyrische Kaufmann Yarhai of King Meredates was used as satrap. Bahrain was an important staging post on the route to India.
The Charakene was known in antiquity for its dreary winter and extremely hot and humid summer months. Precipitation was rare, but the rivers were rich in water. They often caused devastating floods, made the country but also very fruitful.
The names
The names Mesene (also Messene, Aramaic Mayshan ) and Charakene be used even in ancient times almost synonymous to each other. Charakene is derived from the name of the capital Charax - Spasinu and originally perhaps only the area around the actual city, but has been used over time for the whole kingdom. The origin of the name Mesene other hand, is uncertain. Perhaps the word is Akkadian. It is initially likely to be the name of the landscape of southern Babylonia. In the nachparthischen time held the designation Mesene (Arabic Maysan, Hebrew Mesan or meson, Armenian Meschun ), while the term Charakene disappeared.
History
Prehistory
Alexander the Great founded in the south of Babylonia, at the confluence of the Euphrates and the Karkheh a city named Alexandria, which is usually referred to as Alexandria on the Tigris. As a resident Macedonian soldiers and people were the nearby town Durine settled. Alexandria on the Tigris quickly developed into an important commercial center. There was probably a naval base of the Seleucid Empire.
In the Seleucid Empire made quite Babylonia own satrapy. Antiochus III. divided them and created the division in the south of the satrapy of the Erythraean Sea, to which probably belonged to the island of Failaka. Capital was Alexandria on the Tigris River, the city was destroyed under Antiochus IV by a flood and rebuilt. She was named Antioch to their new builder.
Since the middle of the 3rd century BC, more and more provinces ( Parthia, Bactria ) fell from the Seleucid Empire, which stretched from India to the Mediterranean, from. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, the empire finally was in a phase of state resolution. The east of the empire was lost forever. Babylonia was repeatedly ruled by new masters. From 162-161 BC here was Timarchos in power, the former satrap of Media. However, he was defeated by the legitimate Seleucid king Demetrius II. Twenty years later, the Elymais made independently and tried to conquer parts of the Seleucid Empire. Your troops are in 142 BC witnessed in southern Babylonia. In the year 141 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the Parthian king Mithridates I. To 139/38 BC, but there were a few successful counter- offensive by the Seleucids.
Foundation
To 165/64 BC, a certain Hyspaosines of Antiochus IV governor ( eparch ) of the satrapy of the Erythraean Sea was used and should dominate the region for about 40 years. According to Pliny Hyspaosines was the son of Sagdodonacus, king of the Arabs. The name Hyspaosines is probably the Hellenized form of the Iranian Vispa - Canah ( at all pleasing wealthy ). This name is attested several times in the Greek world, but can otherwise hardly something to be said for the origin of the name, and thus the Hyspaosines. Hyspaosines may have been promoted by Antiochus IV as particularly capable man in this troubled province. From about 140 BC undertook Hyspaosines various campaigns and reigned briefly even parts of Persia and Babylonia. He sent his son Timotheus after Seleucia, but was pushed back quickly. In any case, the city of Babylon belonged temporarily to his domain. From there below him dated texts. Hyspaosines perhaps coined since 140 BC own coins, on which he appears as a king, but its status and the exact dating of these coins, and thus the assumption of the royal title in the controversial research. Certainly Hyspaosines is attested for the first time on May 30, 127 BC in a cuneiform text with the title of king. However, the exact time of the adoption of the royal title, and thus the foundation of the Charakene as an autonomous state remain uncertain. One possible date is the period shortly after 129 BC In this year Antiochus VII made a last attempt to regain Mesopotamia, but failed. In this power vacuum, the Charakene been able to establish with Hyspaosines as king. From Hyspaosines and his wife Thalassia there is an inscription of Bahrain, which is called a temple of the Dioscuri and the strategos of Bahrain with names Kephisodoros. Probably Bahrain was part of the satrapy of the Erythraean Sea. With the establishment of Charakene own kingdom as this part of the satrapy was automatically a province of the new state, with its own provincial administration. Hyspaosines died on 11 June 124 BC at the age of 85 years, after he became ill four days earlier. It can be referred to as the actual founder of the kingdom Charakene. Coins with his name were still marked up 122/1 BC, what the previous research prompting to assume that he reigned until this year. His exact date of death is, however, preserved in the astronomical diaries.
The position of the Parthians in the Charakene in the time of the rise of Hyspaosines is largely unknown. They had invaded early as 140 BC in Mesopotamia and had conquered it, but at the same time had to deal with the incident nomads in the east, so that their forces were elsewhere and linked their rule in Mesopotamia was not sure. Hyspaosines likes to have subjected the Parthians from the beginning, to then in times of weakness again break away from them. His conquests may be seen as an attempt of the Seleucid side to regain the country. The elevation of the Hyspaosines king has but then the action in their own interests.
First pre-Christian century
After the death of his widow Hyspaosines Thalassia tried to put their son on the throne, but from the cuneiform sources that deliver the episode, not clear whether it was successful. The name of the son is not known. The next king is known by name Apodakos which is BC is on coins dated from 110 / 09, and resumes under the order, after a break of about 10 years, the coinage. It remains uncertain whether he is identical with the son of Hyspaosines, which was used by his mother as his successor. It can now be assumed that the Charakene was a part of the Parthian Empire and was a vassal state. The Parthian king Mithridates II ( 123-88 BC) had any case of coins Hyspaosines their mark on what is usually interpreted as expressions of power. The subsequent kings are usually only known by name. Some of them are named because of their advanced age Lucian (c. 120 to 200 AD), but Lucian has otherwise hardly further information. The coinages are rather monotonous and provide little evidence of political events. The names of the rulers seem to either Iran ( Tiraios, Artabazus, Orabazes ) or Aramaic / Semitic ( Attambelos - Bel has given, - servants of Nergal Abinergaos ) to be. In the traditional forms us the names are hellenized.
The first and second century AD
The first century AD was the heyday of the Parthian Empire. From this period and the first half of the second century, most palmyrischen inscriptions, the individual places of Charakene, especially Charax - Spasinu, call and occupy a flourishing trade date. Abinergaos I. ( about 10/ 11 to 13 /14 and again 22/23 AD), mentioned by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. According to Josephus, a prince of Adiabene, Izates, son of King Monobazos to have lived at the royal court of Charakene and was with Samacho, daughter Abinergaos ' I. married. Samacho came with the Jewish merchant Ananias in contact, who converted to Judaism and was finally able to convert even Izates. The presence of Jewish traders in the Charakene is not surprising further, since Jews in Mesopotamia are well documented and the Messene several times, but only for Sassanid period, called the Talmud. The episode is also the friendly relationship Parthian vassal states, at least for certain periods. In this context it is hardly surprising also that is from 200 AD to expect Christians in the Charakene. In the Chronicle of Arbela Forat is mentioned as a bishopric.
Almost all the other kings of the first century, with the exception of Orabazes I. are known only by their coins. At the end of the first century there were thirty years (from 73/4 bis 101/2 AD) interruption in the coinage. As additional sources are missing, one can only speculate what does this mean. It may indicate that the Charakene was ruled directly from Pacorus, the Parthian king this time. In fact, one finds around 130 AD a son of Pacorus on the throne of Charakene. Perhaps it was also the rulers of the Charakene at this time simply forbidden to coin money.
Throughout the second century AD, the Parthian Empire had to deal with the incident Romans and internal difficulties. It remains unknown to what extent the Charakene was affected. When the Roman Emperor Trajan AD conquered parts of the Parthian Empire in 117, the Charakene yielded without a fight under Attambelos VII. For the following years no coinage are occupied. They sat again until the year 143/4 with a Meredates. Since Meredates was the son of a Parthian king, it has been suggested that in these years the Charakene was governed without their own king, but directly by the Parthians. There is a remarkable monument to Meredates. From Seleucia the bronze statue of Hercules, the reports of the deposition of Meredates by the Parthian king Vologaeses IV in 151 AD comes from. The reasons for this intervention can only speculate again. The inscription is silent as to from, but one may suspect that Meresdates the Parthians against was not loyal, so they had good reason to intervene directly in Charakene.
The subsequent rulers are again known only by their coins. It is noteworthy that in the middle of the second century the Greek Münzaufschriften are replaced by those in Aramaic. The coins of Orabazes II (ca. 160 AD) still show both languages, that of his successor Abinergaos II (ca. 180 AD ) are then described only in Aramaic. Münzdatierungen also disappear with Abinergaos II Aramaic corresponds certainly spoken in the Charakene language. This development is the final departure from the Hellenistic to Iranian traditions, as can be observed throughout the Parthian Empire. The inscriptions are now often corrupt and therefore difficult to read. Maga ( reading uncertain) refers to himself as the son of Attambelos (probably Attambelos VIII ), which is a dynastic union is in this time. Maga is known by numerous coins and reigned likely to be relatively long. He is also the last ruler of the occupied Contemporary Charakene. His reign is tentatively scheduled to begin at 200. The last ruler is then known only by an Arab historical work, describing the victory over the Charakene. The ruler is called Bandu, perhaps a corrupt version of Abinergaos (ie Abinergaos III. ). The conquest is expected to fall to the year 222 AD. With the advent of the Sassanid Empire Charakene disappeared as an independent political unit.
Status of Charakene
It can usually only speculate to what extent the Parthians intervened in the internal affairs of the kingdom. The degree of autonomy remains uncertain. While some of the research looks at the Charakene as virtually independent state, there are others who find no evidence. For Artabazus (reigned for 49/48 BC ) is nevertheless reported in Lucian, that he passed through Parthian support to power. It is also worth mentioned the inscription on the statue of Hercules. Accordingly, the Parthian king had Vologaeses IV AD conquered the Charakene in 151 and deposed the local king Meredates. Obviously there have been periods in which the Charakene made himself independent, but was recaptured by the Parthians. It should be noted that Meredates was the son of the Parthian king Pacorus, so was of Parthian descent and has been used by them. This suggests a similar policy as in other parts of the Parthian Empire, where is occupied mainly for Armenia that kings inserting their own sons as Vassallenkönige in major provinces. The case of Meredates suggests that not all Parthian princes were loyal and therefore had to be rebuked by the Parthian central government. Otherwise, is completely unknown how the succession was regulated. Several times occurring ruler names like after all to ruling families, who provided several kings, interpret. In the same vein indicated that Maga ( 180 AD ) appears on his coins as the son of Attambelos VIII and that the Hyspaosines widow tried to put a son on the throne.
Economy and Trade
Agriculture played a major role with security. Ancient sources repeatedly stress the fertility of the region. Wine, fruit and especially dates are mentioned as export goods. According to Chinese sources, if they relate to the Charakene, even rice was grown. Pearls you ertauchte in the Persian Gulf, was another important export item.
A special importance was the long-distance trade. The ports on the Persian Gulf linked Mesopotamia and Rome with India, South and Central Asia. In numerous inscriptions from Palmyra cities of Charakene be called as the end point of caravans. The palmyrischen dealer even talked offices in Charax - Spasinu and Forat. Commodities were mainly luxury goods of the East, such as silk, pearls, precious woods, ivory, spices and incense; from the West, gold, silver, glassware, coral, wine and grain were shipped to the East. Other important trade partners were different cities and countries in Arabia. Forat is explicitly mentioned as a meeting point for traders from Petra. The rise of the Charakene as an important trade size in the Persian Gulf may also bring to the development of Gerrha in relationship. Gerrha, located in the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula, is mentioned several times as a rich commercial city since the 4th century BC. The city controlled the trade routes between Petra, Egypt and Babylonia on the one hand, and South Arabia and perhaps India on the other side. With the advent of Charakene these routes have however been diverted and this trade wrapped multiplied exceedingly Charakene from. Gerrha is no longer called after the first century AD in ancient sources.
Coins of Charakene found in numerous places on the Persian Gulf, so on Failaka and the neighboring islands al - Akaz, Umm an - Naman and in ad -Dur ( Oman), in addition they were found in Susa and Uruk and demonstrate the trade archaeologically.
Trade with China likely played a certain role. The Charakene lay on a route of the Silk Road. There were several Chinese delegations who were trying to get to Rome, but were prevented by the Parthians from progressing. From the Chinese side, there are reports that a subjugated by the Parthians country with the name Tiaozhi (Chinese条 枝,条 支, Pinyin Tiaozhi ) mention. Tiaozhi to have on the western sea. There is strong evidence that with Tiaozhi the Charakene is meant, as they had direct access to the Persian Gulf; but this can not be proven.
Culture
The only known by name, originating from the Charakene writer Isidore of Charax, who made a trip description ( Parthian Stations) of the Parthian empire on behalf of Emperor Augustus .. The work gave Roman generals first-hand information to the Parthian Empire and is certainly exactly this purpose has been commissioned. From Isidore of Charax there is also a report of pearl divers in the Persian Gulf.
Since there has been in any place in the heartland of the Charakene excavations, can the material culture is little to be said.
However, findings from Bahrain can be called as the island belonged to the sphere of the Charakene. Here were found with the deceased decorated grave stones. The stelae usually show a standing man. The craft level of these works ranges from some mediocre, to more modest levels. These grave stones followed by two art traditions. There are according to Hellenistic models shaped figures and those that are clearly in the Parthian tradition. These are the two art circles that are well attested in the rest of the Parthian Empire. The art of the Charakene should be so largely followed the rest of the Parthian Empire. The pottery found in Bahrain is very similar to the ceramic, which has been found in Susa, in the southwest of Iran and Babylon. So the whole area formed its own cultural space.
An exception in the creation of art are the coins that are well known and provide an indication for the development of art in the Charakene. A striking feature of the coins of the Charakene is the long adherence to Hellenistic traditions. Parthian coins show early Iranian style elements. A created by Hellenistic models portrait will be replaced soon by more stylized representations in a purely Parthian style. This change of style is completely accomplished for Christ's birth. In the Charakene follow even the coins of Orabazes II, who ruled shortly after 150 AD, clearly Hellenic model. In Charax - Spasinu Macedonian soldiers have been settled, suggesting that the city for a long time preserved Hellenistic traditions. This seems to confirm also the Greek writing and living for Christ's birth writer Isidore of Charax.
Swell
The Charakene is repeatedly described by ancient geographers, which also provide occasional historical information. Here especially the remarks of Pliny the Elder are informative. Mentions in ancient historians, however, are very rare, which is certainly mainly because of the fact that the relevant works have not survived, and the surviving works concentrate mainly on the countries of the Mediterranean and their events. For the reign of Hyspaosines the Astronomical Diaries of Babylon are of great importance. It is cuneiform texts that combine political events with star gazing and fixed data. They have come out garbled on us, but deliver on the day of accurate data and submit events that are nowhere else preserved. Excavations in the area of Charakene there is so far so good as. A Survey was able to locate at least the capital and Forat. Further information comes from inscriptions from Palmyra, which are important for the trading history mainly, but also call royal name.
Of particular importance are the coins, by which the succession of rulers can be traced well. Namely, they are dated according to the Seleucid era and thus form a solid chronological framework. Only the coins of the second half of the second century AD show no more dating. The coins have a common design in general. Point to the front of an image of the ruler and have first Greek, but later Aramaic legends. The ruler looks generally to the right. This is remarkable, since usually looks on Parthian coins, the king left. On the back there is often an image of Heracles. Other representations, such as Tyche or an anchor, are rare and are often associated in research with course changes in the policies of individual kings. The conclusions drawn from them are usually very speculative.
Research
Since at least the 18th century, the coins were Charakene in European collections. They were usually referred to as the Parthian, Armenian or Bactrian. Ennio Quirino Visconti in 1811 the first time she could definitely assign the Charakene. The first attempt to clear off the story appeared in 1817 (but published only posthumously ) by MJ Saint- Martin, who located the Charakene right at the northern end of the Persian Gulf. William Henry Waddington 1866 created a first succession of rulers, but was still incomplete. He also did not differentiated between different kings with the same name. Only in the following years, these rulers were kept in individual studies apart. Fundamentals was especially the publication of the coins in the British Museum by George Francis Hill. Since 1930, the inscriptions have been published from Palmyra systematically, the number of new findings, especially on trade relations of Charakene services. A 1960 article published by Sheldon A. Nodelmann created a history of Charakene, all was the most important study on the subject to date known sources and united long time. The most extensive study was finally published in 2000 by Monika Schuol. It combines all text sources found up to this point. Especially the cuneiform texts provided many new insights into the reign of Hyspaosines and thus the beginning of the Charakene. The most important new archaeological find after the publication of this comprehensive publication is the Greek inscription authored the Hyspaosines of Bahrain, the island is a part of his kingdom and handed the previously known only from cuneiform texts the name of his wife.