Conjunction (grammar)

Conjunction (from the Latin con - iungere, join '; also: conjunction, linking characters; Junction ) is in the grammar of the name for a part of speech, which manufactures syntactic connections between words, phrases, sentence elements or principles and at the same time logical or grammatical relations between the connected elements expressed. Together with the prepositions, linguistically serve a similar purpose, conjunctions are summarized as relators. In contrast to prepositions conjunctions normally govern any case on their supplements. It differs mainly between next ordering conjunctions (eg, and, as, because ) and subordinating conjunctions (also: next sentence introductory conjunctions, such as that because, if), which form two very different groups.

Subordinate clause Introductory conjunctions also belong to a class of abstract syntactic elements that are mentioned in formal linguistics complementers.

• 2.1 Significance types
• 2.2 Function of selected next -ordering conjunctions 2.2.1 and
• 2.2.2 or

• 3.1 Syntactic and semantic types of conjunctions
• 3.2 Special cases 3.2.1 The use of because

Boundaries and distinctions

Conjunction and connective in the sense of logic

The conjunction as part of speech in grammar must be distinguished from the term " conjunction" in the sense of logic, whereby a whole structure is referred to, in the two sentences with " and" are connected and their truth values ​​are calculated. A connecting element such as "and" for itself alone is, in the logic then " connective ". This term " connective " but in turn used sporadically by grammarians to refer to a more general class of interconnecting linguistic elements that form the next ordering and subordinating conjunctions a part.

Subordinating conjunctions and besides ordering

Terminology

Traditionally, divide the conjunctions, especially in addition to ordering (also: beiordnende, coordinating, coordinative, paratactic ) (example: and ) and subordinating ( subordinating, hypotactic ) (example: because) a.

To distinguish sometimes subordinating conjunctions are also referred to as Subjunktionen ( subordinating conjunction ); In this case, the term " conjunction" but then ambiguous between the wide range of meanings (as in the title of this article ) and a narrower meaning of " coordinating conjunction" as distinct from " subjunction ". To avoid misunderstandings, suggests the Duden grammar as neutral generic term instead of conjunction ( in the broad sense ) the expression Junktion ago.

As a special group can still " Adjunktoren " can be distinguished, also called particle of comparison, especially the words " like" and " as".

Grammatical classification

The next grading conjunctions are between two main clauses, two subordinate clauses or two parts of the sentence, and connect them together so:

• [ You go away ], and [ I'm staying here. ]
• I think [ that it has completed its work ], and [ that he is so far too soon. ]
• We want to buy [ apples ] and [ Pear ].

The subordinating conjunctions are preliminary in a subordinate clause and bind it as a parent in the sentence:

• You go away, [ while I stay here].
• I think [ that it has completed its work. ]
• We are here, [ because we want to buy apples and pears. ]

The comparative particles " like" and " as" are a special case, since these elements ( in importance as compared particles) take no subordinate clauses, but as the Subjunktionen be followed by a single supplement. In contrast coordinating conjunctions form a syntactic unit from the preceding and the following expression:

• He looked at [ the paintings ] and [ the drawings ].
• [ The paintings ] and [ the drawings ] he first looked. ( Displacement test: " A and B" is moved together)

Comparisons:

• I see this as very successful.
• [ As a very successful ] I consider especially the drawings.
• NOT: * [ The drawings as very successful ] I see.

Demarcation of prepositions

Although sometimes conjunctions and prepositions are difficult to distinguish and may have some words a double function, the two types of words are grammatically but delineate clearly from each other in principle. Above all prepositions govern a case, conjunctions do not. The following example solves the preposition "with" Dativrektion from, whereas the conjunction "and" assigns not have its own case, but the Akkusativrektion of the verb can order unchanged:

• He ordered Akk [ a schnitzel ] with Dat [ a small salad ].
• He ordered Akk [ a schnitzel ] and Akk [ a small salad ].

Demarcation problems between prepositions and Subjunktionen arise primarily because prepositions can sometimes also face subordinate clauses and take this as its complement: Grammatically remains the difference is that prepositions in these cases before a subordinate clause, but subordinating conjunctions would be available within the coset; but this is often not visible externally:

Delineation of interrogative pronouns

To be distinguished from conjunctions are set opening question - and relative pronouns and question - and Relative Adverbs, because they can form larger syntactic units ( ie phrases ). In fields model of the German sentence occupy both the main clause and subordinate clause in the "apron ", whereas the position of the subordinating conjunction, the " left bracket " (or the position of the complementer ), as shown in the last example below:

( For larger syntactic units in sales introductory function, as in the second and fourth examples, see Pied construction. )

Demarcation of adverbs

The determination of substantive connections between sentences does not always happen by conjunctions (such as by the conjunction "because" that establishes a causative relation of the subordinate clause to the main clause ). Instead, such compounds may also be referred to by certain adverbs that are not set introductory conjunctions, but normal parts of a sentence. This type of adverb is called Konjunktionaladverb. , Fortune can it be recognized that they classify themselves as any other part of the sentence into the model fields, eg May be ahead of a verb-second sentence, or are in the middle:

• Because the weather is beautiful ... ( I walk ). (Conjunction, the verb appears at the end of block)
• The weather is beautiful, so I walk. ( Konjunktionaladverb in advance, the verb appears in second place )
• The weather is beautiful, ( and ) therefore I walk. ( Konjunktionaladverb in the middle )

Words of different types of words, adverbs, particles and conjunctions that have such content related functions that can be summarized under the term "connectors" ..

In addition to marshaling conjunctions in German

Frequent and uncontroversial examples besides ordering conjunctions in English are: and, or, but, because, but, but, well, that is. A special group is formed by multi-part conjunctions, correlative pairs form as either - or both - and, neither- nor.

In addition to marshaling conjunctions can connect units of different size:

Meaning types

Function selected in addition to an ordering conjunctions

And

The conjunction and has several meanings. Firstly, it refers to the case of the logical conjunction, so that two or more connected all statements are true.

In conjunction with nouns, however, often have a different meaning in the multiple individuals and compiles them into a group, so to speak, producing a collective individual appears:

• Peter and Karl have carried down the piano.

Here, a case is meant, in which neither of them has ever worn alone a piano, but where only the group that consists of the two together, could create this. However, between nouns and appear as a shortened form of a " logical and", in which the full contents of the two linked statements must be developed and supplemented by the listener.

• Peter and Karl have you ever saved a man 's life.
• Peter and Karl have you ever saved a man 's life.

In these two examples, the content to be reconstructed as:

• [ Peter has ever saved a man's life ] and [ Karl has ever saved a man's life ].

This reading of and between nouns, must not form a group at the Peter and Karl is called a " distributive " ( the statement is on Peter and Karl " distributed "). When using the conjunction and this reading is compelling, hereby no Gruppenlesart is possible.

Another common variant of importance is that the connection of two statements is interpreted with and as a chronological sequence:

• She married and had a child.
• They had a child and got married.

In some contexts, as above, this interpretation seems quite compelling; but is usually not considered a separate word meaning of and, rather than a conclusion in context, ie a conversational implicature.

Or

Or in the function of a logical connective means that at least one of the combined statements is true. In the natural language also occur closer meanings that only exactly one of the above statements to be true ( Exclusive Or ). ( Will you come with, yes or no? ). Often these alternatives are using either - or formulated.

In conjunction with a parent denial or a prohibition, meaning arise considering all possibilities out of the question ( here, it is forbidden to eat, drink or smoke. All this is prohibited)

Some other uses of the word or just wear pragmatic functions, such as:

• That a particular consequence is expected ( Get lost, or what it happens! )
• That no objection is expected (direct what happens. Or do not you believe that? rhetorically )
• That there is also an unnamed other way or that the statement is meant out of focus (10 days ago or so)
• That actually an agreement is expected ( You're coming with, right? reenacted rhetorically )

Subordinating conjunctions in English

Syntactic and semantic types of conjunctions

Subordinate clauses that are introduced by conjunctions can accept all kinds of phrase functions: it can be the subject or object of a verb or adverbial. Conjunctions that mark subject or object sets, are mainly that and ob Here the conjunction marks whether the feature that a subordinate clause is an (indirect ) question, while that above all statements marked.

For subordinate clauses in the function of adverbial clauses exist, depending on the exact meaning of many specialized conjunctions:

• Temporal: at the same time: while by, while [ sen ], as long as, and as often as how
• Early: after, as, if, once, and, since [ the ]
• Nachzeitig: up, before, before, (rarely :) as if

• Instrumental (modal ) i e p: by
• Restrictive / adversative ( to mark the restriction and the antithesis ): ( in ) to the extent (in ) provided, so much as, whereas
• Comparative: as if, as if, as if

• Causally in the narrow sense: because, since, especially now that (in terms of how)
• Consecutively (following characteristic ): so or so, as that that
• Conditional (condition indicative ): if, if, if, if, to the extent ( veralt. :) so
• Concessive ( conceding ): although, even though, ( rare: if, although, though, albeit, although, if they did, though, notwithstanding, however )
• Final ( target- putting ): so that, in order -to veralt: . to that

Special cases

The use of because

• The conjunction because historically changed relatively quickly. The original sense is temporal ( "as long as ", " meanwhile "). In the 19th century outweighed the causal use and later because only causally needed. In brotherly! load us Being funny because the spring endureth by Günther means there " as long as ".
• Today's causal significance includes both the cause -effect relationship, as well as a justification. The cause -effect relationship is not to be understood in a strictly scientific sense.
• In the standard language, the conjunction is because only used as a subordinating conjunction. The road is wet because it is raining outside.
• In colloquial language it is now used more and more as a co-ordinating conjunction: The road is wet because - it raining cats and dogs. As long as it is not an epistemic because acts (see following paragraph ), the standard language Conjunction can be used instead because, without changing the meaning.
• The epistemic replaced because in the course of language change in spoken language because the conjunction in sentences like Agnes works safely even; - Because - you car is in the parking lot. This set is when you correctly phrased with the verb in final position, illogical: Agnes is still working, because her car is in the parking lot. Because the car in the parking lot is not the reason that Agnes is still working. The first sentence, however, refers here to the epistemic state of knowledge of the speaker. In about: I know that Agnes is still working, because her car then always in the parking lot. So the sentence answered rather the question of where the speaker knows that Agnes is still working.

Conjunctions in other languages

The conjunctions of English are similar to those of the Germans. Here a distinction is made in the traditional grammar similar in Coordinating conjunctions ( and coordinators ) and subordinating conjunctions (also subordinators ).

In many SOV languages ​​subsets have the " main clauses " ( parent records) precede. Equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of SVO languages ​​like German and English are set final conjunctions as in Japanese or suffixes that are appended to the verb, and thus are not your own words.