Crambe abyssinica
Crambe ( Crambe abyssinica )
The crambe, Ölkrambe, Crambe crambe or Abyssinian ( Crambe abyssinica, after revision also C. hispanica subsp. Abyssinica ) is a plant of the family (Brassicaceae ). There, it is classified in the genus Crambe ( Crambe ). It is an oil plant, whose oil is used as a renewable resource for the production of foam brakemen, industrial oils and waxes as well as in detergents. Its importance as an economic plant ( Brassica napus subsp. Oleifera ) in comparison to other oil crops such as rapeseed low.
- 5.1 Cultivation and breeding history
- 5.2 cultivation
- 5.3 Use
- 5.4 Green genetic engineering
- 7.1 Notes and references
- 7.2 Literature
Description
Vegetative characteristics
The crambe is a 60 to 150 cm high annual plant. Your plant height is strongly dependent on the site conditions. On very dry sites, the plants only reach heights between 40 and 60 cm. The stem is occupied in the lower area dense with 0.25 to 1.5 millimeters long hair and is increasingly being bald at the top. The plant branches, starting from the bottom, the degree of branching can be more or less strong. The near-bottom leaves are 2 to 5.5 inches long, round-oval to heart-shaped molded with an irregular edge and a long handle, the terminal lobe is ovate and blunt. Next overhead sheets, however, are small and lanceolate.
The deep projecting into the ground taproot is an adaptation to their original, dry habitat; they do is highly branched and penetrate into deep soil layers one of which it can absorb water and nutrients. Soil compaction and stones are overgrown by this curvature and branching.
Flowers
The small white flowers are hermaphroditic and form a loose raceme. The sepals are approximately 2 millimeters, the petals 2.5 to 3.5 millimeters long. The stamens are 2 to 3.5 mm, the anthers about 0.75 millimeters long.
It involves the cruciferous typical four-fold cross flowers with four petals and four large and two small stamens. The nectaries are honey- filled and thus attractive to bees and bumble bees, which represent the bulk of the pollinators. In addition to this insect pollination and self -pollination ( autogamy ) may be made of flowers.
Fruit and seeds
The two-tier and very short, oval to spherical pods usually contain only one seed that is gray-green to yellowish brown. The pods have a diameter of 2 to 5 millimeters, they come to a thousand fruit mass 7-14 grams. The spherical seed has a diameter of 1.5 to 3 mm and reaches a thousand grain mass 4-12 grams. During seed maturation, the plant turned light brown and dies thereafter.
The seeds of the plant, both of the wild as well as the cultivars, have an average oil content of about 40 to 50 percent by dry weight of the fruit, only 30 to 40 percent. This is especially the erucic acid, which accounts for a content of 55 to 62 percent of the oil of the plant - which is the highest erucic all known vegetable oils. Other components are the oleic acid with 15 to 18, the linoleic acid containing from 8 to 10, and linolenic acid, with 6 to 7 percent.
As with other cruciferous plants lies in the Krambesamen the protein content is about 20 to 25 percent of the dry weight. Other ingredients include glucosinolates with about 60 to 90 micromol / g, about 95 percent goes to the Epi - progoitrin. Also Sinapine, tannins and inositol phosphates are detected.
Genetics
The crambe has a very large set of chromosomes from 2n = 90 chromosomes and is significantly different from other species of the genus. The potential sister species, the Spanish sea kale (C. hispanica), has, in comparison, a set of chromosomes from only 2n = 60 chromosomes. Both species are crossable with each other and were hybridized to the growth of multiple varieties.
Development
The crambe is an annual plant that has a vegetation period of 90 to 110 days under Central European climate conditions. This begins with a rising phase, which can last due to temperature between less than 10 days at temperatures above 11 ° C and 15 days at temperatures below 8 ° C. Until the beginning of flowering pass 50 to 60 days, while the grow the vegetative plant parts such as the stem and the leaves. This is followed by a flowering of 25 to 30 days, and the seeds ripen closes with 15 to 30 days.
The losses can rise between 50 percent in daytime temperatures of about 8 ° C during the rising phase and 10 percent at higher temperatures will be around 15 ° C. After the rising of the loss margin is 14-33 percent. The development is also dependent on the water supply, the demand, especially in the early generative development phase and again during seed maturation is later very high.
Original occurrences
Information about the original distribution area of crambe are contradictory mainly due to the not yet fully clarified taxonomic situation. To submit this information from their presentation as endemic plant in Ethiopia up to the popular belief that the original distribution area is located in the steppe areas in the highlands of Abyssinia in Ethiopia as well as in Rwanda and the plant starting from there on East Africa at the African and Asia Minor Mediterranean coast has spread to Turkey.
System
The first description of crambe was carried out by Robert Elias Fries in the botanical evaluation of the results of the Swedish Rhodesia Congo expedition, which took place from 1911 to 1912 under the leadership of Count Eric von Rosen. It was published in 1916 in Stockholm as a 1 band of Scripture Scientific results of the Swedish Rhodesia - Congo Expedition 1911-1912, in the frieze under the subtitle Botanical investigations in addition to the crambe a number of other new species described for the first time.
The crambe is a species of the genus Crambe ( Crambe ); within the genus Crambe it is classified on the basis of molecular genetic features in the section Leptocrambe and there is the sister species of the Spanish sea cabbage (C. hispanica). Other species of the Section C. filiformis, C. glabrata and C. kralikii, the entire section is the section Dendrocrambe with three species to as a sister group.
C. abyssinica
C. hispanica
C. filiformis
C. glabrata
C. kralikii
Section Dendrocrambe
In 2000, an alternative scheme of section Leptocrambe was presented. The crambe subsp as subspecies C. hispanica. abyssinica of Spanish sea cabbage with the two varieties abyssinica and viewed meyeri. Although this revision is accepted as valid in different Flore representations and databases, yet they could not be established in the literature on the plant. Especially in writings on the use and application of Crambe the established name is used to this day. Confirmation took the view through a study conducted in 2003 on the basis of a broad data sets from morphological and genetic data in which the species complex from C. abyssinica, C. hispanica and C. glabrata was investigated. Thus, C. glabrata is clearly separated from the other two species, while the crambe is within the characteristic variability of the Spanish sea cabbage.
Use
Cultivation and breeding history
The crambe crop is as very young and was first cultivated in 1932 in the Soviet Union. As a result, the cultivation area increased particularly in Eastern Europe, where it never had significant proportions of the arable land. It was only from the 1950s and 1960s surfaces are appointed by 30,000 ha in the Soviet Union and in Poland and the German Democratic Republic, crambe was grown on about 4,200 ha as an oil plant. In North America, in Canada and the USA, and in Venezuela it was grown at the time and bred. In the U.S., documented cultivation began in 1958.
The crops were selected mainly from the African wild stocks and cultured for improving grain yield and adaptation to the Eurasian climate. The first cultivar Polish Borowski in 1960 approved in 1968 the American variety prophet. Other varieties created by cross breeding of the Spanish sea cabbage (C. hispanica ) through which shortens the period of vegetation and resistance to drought and frost should be increased. They led to the 1973 approved variety Meyer. 1986 came from North America, the two varieties BelAnn and BelEnzian added.
The increasingly favorable properties of the new varieties introduced in the 1980s and 1990s to a renewed interest in growing as a renewable raw material for the chemical industry. The plant has been grown on an experimental and on relatively small acreage in several European countries, most notably in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, France, Sweden and Poland. In Italy was established by further breeding the variety Mario, which was approved in 1996. Other new varieties such as Nebula, Galactica, Charlotte and Carmen came from the Netherlands. Especially Carmen and Mario are today considered optimal varieties for Central European climate and recommended for cultivation in Germany.
In Germany about 100 to 500 hectares were used for crambe mid-1990s. In other European countries the proportion of the total area was also low. In the United Kingdom Krambeflächen in 2003 were in excess of 3,500 hectares (2002 and 2004 respectively over 1,000 acres ), until today the contract farming for a private enterprise plays the leading role there. Publicly funded projects in Germany and at the level of the European Union supported by the mid-1990s to about 2005, the establishment as an agricultural culture and their industrial use. In the U.S., a significant area of over 20,000 ha was achieved due to private and governmental initiatives to increase use.
Cultivation
As a drought-resistant plant that can be grown Crambe especially at sites that are for plants with similar use, especially rape, little or no suitable. Such a cultivation on loamy- sandy soils with low sorption capacity is possible. She is slightly higher conditions to the air temperature than the rape or the camelina. Thus, the minimum germination temperature is from 8 to 10 ° C and the optimum being 15 to 25 ° C. The frost tolerance is low, the tolerance limit is -5 ° C.
The optimum crop rotation combination with potatoes or grain is considered as a change with rape or other cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage or turnips species is not recommended due to unilateral land use. The use of the area should be carried crambe within the crop rotation up to 25 percent. A direct Krambenutzung after a green manure has a negative effect on the revenues of crambe, since in the case of a high degree of unwanted weeds can be expected. Due to the positive characteristics on soil fertility, the crambe yourself a good previous crop for the subsequent cultivation of grain dar.
Harvesting is done when the plants are fully mature and have adopted a light gray color. After the maturity of the fruit can vary, so that a time window of about 14 days should be used for the harvest. As the rape may also combines with crambe are harvested. Information on the level of income vary greatly depending on the author and growing region. Income from 0.17 to 2.8 tons per hectare are given for the United States. Surveys from four German states for 1996-1999 resulting in large-scale crop yields from 0.6 to 2.4 tons per hectare. Substantially higher yields in the same time carried out two field experiments, in which up to 4 tons per hectare have been achieved.
Use
The crambe is used almost exclusively as an oil plant as a raw material for industry, because the ingredients for humans and livestock are inedible to poisonous. At harvest, the whole fruits are collected, wherein the shell portion comprises about 20 to 40 percent.
The erucic acid as the main component of the seed is slightly toxic, and is used above all in the production of foam in detergent Bremsern ( emulsifiers), industrial oils and Gleitfetten. Other areas of use are in the manufacture of synthetic fibers, alkyd resins and plasticizers, as well as in the production of pharmaceutical products. As the heat- stable oil is Krambeöl also used in steel processing.
As a by- product of the production of Krambeöl falls depending on the processing method to Krambepresskuchen or Krambeextraktionsschrot. As a feed, this can be used only to a very limited, mainly because the glucosinolates contained and other ingredients such as Sinapine, tannins and inositol phosphates are toxic and thus its use as food counter ( anti-nutritive effect ). The maximum values of incorporating the Krambenebenprodukte in concentrated feed is 15 percent, in pig rations 5 percent.
Green genetic engineering
The crambe is discussed as a potential producer of wax esters and should be optimized via genetic modifications accordingly for lubricants in the automotive industry. When selecting this plant especially the ethical component is in the foreground: Unlike most other oil plants that crambe as pure raw material plant (non-food crop ) is regarded as their oils are not available for the food industry.
Plant protection
In crop protection, especially the direct damage to the plant by various fungi or animal pests (insects, nematodes ) and indirect interference from weeds play a central role. The crambe is assessed on the basis of their very rapid leaf development over other plants as competitive strong; herbicide use is still considered necessary. Here in the U.S. and Eastern Europe are mainly Trifluralinpräparate as soil herbicides and Butisan, LENTAGRAN and others as pesticides are used.
The most important pathogens of crambe are fungi such as Alternaria blackness that is triggered by the species Alternaria brassicicola and Alternaria Brassiceae, the white mold, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and their triggers the gray mold by Botrytis cinerea. More harmful fungi Verticillium dahliae with less significant features ( Verticillium wilt), Plasmodiophora brassicae, Puccinia trabutii and Peronospora Crambes. Various fungicides infestation reductions of 20 to 30 percent can be achieved.
Insects and other pests tierliche play a subordinate role, with especially weevils, brassica pod midges and beetles that damage the rape as a type of comparison, are barely detectable. In rare cases, an infestation of the little cabbage root fly ( Delia radicum ) was observed. In the roots of the beet eelworm ( Heterodera schachtii ) can einsiedeln.
Similarly, viruses in the plant protection of crambe of little importance. However, they can be used for various viruses as host plant, most notably for by the Kohlschotenrüssler ( Ceutorhynchus assimilis ) transmitted Turnip yellow mosaic virus ( TYMV ), the Beet mild yellowing virus ( BMYV ) and Beet western yellows virus ( BWYV ). Also for radish mosaic virus ( RAMV, Radish mosaic virus ) the crambe susceptible, as demonstrated in experimental infection tests.