Geyser

A geyser [ gaɪ̯zi ː ɐ̯ ] ( geysia Icelandic - swirl flow ), and Geiser, is a hot spring that ejects its water at regular or irregular intervals as a fountain. Such an outburst is called eruption. The name derives from geysers was for the Great Geysir in Iceland.

• 9.1 Active Geyser
• 9.2 nozzles Grand Geyser (English: " Cone Type Geyser ", translated: " cone geyser " )
• 9.3 Inactive Geyser (English: "dormant Geyser " )
• 9.4 interval
• 9.5 fountains Grand Geyser (English: "Fountain Geyser Type " )

Occurrence

Geysers require a special combination of geological and climatic conditions that exist over a large area in very few places. Geysers are dependent on three factors: a water supply in the form of an aquifer, a heat source ( a Plume or Superplume ) and at least one reservoir with a restriction to the associated piping system.

There are six Geyser of major emergencies

• Yellowstone National Park ( Wyoming) (about 300 active geysers )
• Geiserow Dolina ( Valley of Geysers ), Kronozki National Biosphere Reserve Kamchatka (Russia) (about 200 active geysers, inventory endangered by a landslide on June 3, 2007, forming a reservoir )
• On the North Island of New Zealand (51 active geysers )
• El Tatio, Antofagasta (Chile ) (38 active geysers, 46 total in Chile)
• Haukadalur ( Iceland ) (26 active geysers in all of Iceland )
• Iceland Umnak (Alaska ) ( 8 active geysers )

In the U.S., sporadic geysers exist in Nevada, California, Oregon and Alaska.

About an appreciable number have Papua New Guinea ( 16 active geysers ), New Britain (16) Narage ( 1), Lihir and Ambitle Islands (9 ), Deidei and Iamelele Islands (12) and Indonesia with 8 active geysers on Sumatra, 4 to Java, Celebes and 3 on an active on the island of Bacan.

In addition, geysers still exist in Peru ( 10), China (10 ), Mexico (9 ), in the Fiji Islands (5 ), Japan ( 4) Kenya (4) Ethiopia ( 2) Bolivia ( 2 ) and Myanmar ( 1).

About 300 active geysers, about half of all existing worldwide, located in Yellowstone National Park. On the other hand there are in Iceland, in the "Land of Geysers " only two notable geysers: the Great Geysir and Strokkur the (German churn ). The latter erupts irregularly every few minutes and sometimes up to three times in quick succession. The Great Geysir, which was described by an earthquake in the late 13th century for the first time in written sources, on the other hand last broke out with about 1916 water columns of 70-80 m height. After two strong earthquakes in 2000, however, came as earlier after tremors delay of several months to a temporary increase in activity with irregular outbreaks, although they were not comparable with previous highs and after a few years back came to a complete standstill.

The number of active geysers is to be regarded with caution, as geysers can be inactive very quickly and in rarer cases, inactive geysers are activated for example by earthquake again. Several of the above counted geysers are also in danger of going out with planned utilization of geothermal energy or to be inactive. (see destroyed by people geysers ).

Further, quite a large Geyser existed until the 1980s in Nevada: Beowawe and Steamboat Springs. The construction of geothermal power plants in the vicinity of the existing heat, however, was reduced and the water level dropped so far that the geysers are no longer active.

Properties

The first scientific model for the function of a geyser declared 1846 the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen due to an easy to follow experiment in which a model geyser was rebuilt on a smaller scale with heated boiler as a reservoir and a tube as a channel and also " eruptive behavior " shows.

Geysers occur in active volcanic areas. They have a channel in the form of a tube, which opens into an underground water reservoir. It can consecutively are also several water reservoirs. Typically geysers are powered via the groundwater. The discharged water has a temperature between 90 ° C and slightly above the boiling point, the water in the reservoir can be superheated to much higher temperatures.

The eruption channel or constrictions in the eruption channel play a major role in the eruptions of the geyser. If no restriction exists or if it is too far, so the water vapor can escape freely (steam source) or if the steam cools and condenses far enough, creates a hot spring. The narrower the constriction the greater the thermal convection is suppressed, and the height of the eruption depends on the channel of the pressure from the water column and partially the surrounding rock to the heated water exerts below. To illustrate this: The bottleneck between the upper reservoir and the eruption of the Old Faithful channel has a diameter of about ten centimeters. The bottleneck is approximately 7.5 m depth above the upper reservoir. Old Faithful was traveled down to 16 m depth plentiful with a video camera, in that the conditions are quite well known to this depth and the dynamics of the eruption this geyser is quite well explained.

The heat of a magma chamber heated groundwater to above 100 ° C. The pressure of the water column above it, the water does not boil first ( boiling point elevation ). In one eruption, the following happens in the simplest case: Only when the temperature has risen in the reservoir to well over the boiling point rising single vapor bubbles through the constriction in the channel up and force a portion of the water column upward. This below, the pressure drops rapidly and the superheated water goes abruptly into steam.

Is ejection in a mixture of boiling water vapor, cooler or condensed water and dissolved minerals and rock particles. Over the years, fine gaps are widened in the rock on shafts and in the best case by temporarily dissolved in the water minerals (eg silicates) lined and thus stabilized by the hot water. If on the way to the surface, no effective narrowing eg by a transition from a chamber ( reservoir ) to a line, the water acts as a hot spring or steam source to light.

In essence, the Bunsen model is still considered to be applicable, even if Bunsen said that the conditions in nature are even more complicated and that would be instead of a vertical channel, a " gekniete tube " available at their highest situated underground part gather up steam should, until the pressure is sufficient to eject the water. Investigations at the Old Faithful with a temperature -, pressure - and camera probe in 1992 have shown that the model with the straight ascending channel is sufficiently (Lit.: Scott Bryan, 1995), when a sufficient narrowing is present. The function of the narrowing ( constriction engl. ) is sufficient to temporarily restrain vapor bubbles, it replaces the function of the elbow in the Bunsen model.

John Sargent Rinehart describes (1980 ) six Geysirmodelle:

• Model A: Ideally, an underground reservoir ( one behind the other are possible in practice ) is connected with a long eruption channel opening above ground in a non- submerged cone. This model is described by other sources as a nozzle -shaped ( cone type) geyser. Eruption Type: Fairly regular interval, long eruptions, high eruption column as water and steam. A typical representative of this model is the geyser Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park.
• Model B: Deep, narrow eruption channel without large underground chamber, nearly flat mouth of the channel. Eruption Type: short violent eruptions. A typical representative of this model is the Round Geyser, Yellowstone National Park.
• Model C: Similar to model A, but no high Direction opening above the water level as the mouth of the cone eruption channel but a nozzle just below the water surface of a pond. Eruption type similar to Model A, but no undisturbed jet, but partially thrown high tides.
• Model D: Similar to model C, but in the eruption channel opens a more complex system of several side chambers which empty themselves one by one. Eruption Type: series of eruptions with irregular short breaks, groups of outbreaks, water surge.
• Model E: The eruption channel leads from a large underground chamber in a pond. Eruption Type: Long, fairly regular eruptions, which are not very violent, low eruption column in the form of a surge of water, no water jet.
• Model F: Deep, long eruption channel, which flows into a pond. Eruption behavior such as Model E.

The following factors influence the activity of geysers:

• Seasons and rainfall (more or less intense ), as rainfall in part, take a long time in the sealed system that requires a geyser until they arrive in the aquifer geyser (this can be determined by the ratio of the isotopes of hydrogen in the ejected water);
• Air pressure ( critical ), since the boiling point of water is directly affected by atmospheric pressure;
• Tidal forces ( critical ), high tidal forces wide the columns that provide the geyser with groundwater,
• Earthquake activity ( Geysir differently and partly not directly dependent on the distance to the epicenter of Geysir ), but can not yet predict earthquakes based on the activity of geysers.

Even purely externally without observing the eruption activities, geysers can usually be distinguished from thermal springs.

• Dark -colored lawn of bacteria occur only in the resurgences of hot springs in the rule. The water in the canals and ponds eruption of geysers is too hot to allow these mats of dark thermophilic bacteria. It is experience, the rule: the hotter the water, the brighter are the deposits on thermophilic bacteria.
• Hot Springs often have sharp edges made ​​of sintered, which are deposited in the different water levels of the source. Sinter deposits at geysers are more bulbous than sharp edges.
• Sintering beans, eggs and bulbous sintered sintered indicate a geyser. These formations are formed at regular splashes and gushes of mineralized water.

Types of geysers

Based on the periodicity of the eruptions are more or less regularly erupting geysers erupting and irregular. There are geysers, which can be distinguished strong and weak eruptions. That strong eruptions are irregular, can not be proved. The Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park has very irregular strong eruptions of Castle Geyser is one of the geysers with the most regular interval, as long as he does not break out in weak eruptions. Other distinguishing options are described in the section definitions.

Photo sequence of an erupting geyser

Geysers in New Zealand

Most of the New Zealand geysers have been destroyed since 1886 by natural factors or by human intervention.

• The Rotomahana geyser was lost by the eruption of Mount Tarawera volcano in 1886.
• Two thirds of the geysers in geyser Orakei Korako were flooded by the construction of the dam Ohakuri 1961.
• The geyser Taupo Spa was lost when the Waikato River was diverted in the fifties.
• The Wairakei geyser no longer exists, since a geothermal power plant was built nearby.
• The largest geyser Waimangu Geyser became extinct due to natural causes; it existed only by 1900 until 1904.

The largest remaining geyser in New Zealand is today Whakarewarewa near Rotorua.

Famous geysers

• Beehive Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, mean interval in the measurement period in 2003 about 18 hours irregular, 45-55 m high fountain-like eruption column, four to five minutes in length, like a nozzle )
• Castle Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, mid- interval 2003 outside of the times with small eruptions about twelve hours 45 minutes IBE ( interval in between eruptions, see section interval below) predictable, 20 to 30 m high eruption column, large eruption: 20 minutes water phase, 40 minutes vapor phase; like a nozzle )
• Giant Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, interval very irregular and at times extremely long, currently inactive, eruption duration to more than an hour, 50-83 m high eruption column, like a nozzle, about two meters in diameter)
• Giantess Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, very irregular and at times extremely long ( several months), 30-60 m high eruption column, water eruptions: eruptions five to ten minutes, water phase, 30 to 60 minute break, steam eruptions: vapor phase up to six hours, fountain -like )
• Grand Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, during the measurement period 2003 average interval of 9:50 hours IBE, not as regular as Old Faithful, 50-60 m high eruption column, ten to twelve minutes in length, often breaks several times in immediate succession from outbreaks to nine minutes duration is usually followed by a second very spectacular eruption to the full height of throw, fountain -like)
• Great Fountain Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, about 30-50 m high eruption column, twelve interval ± two hours, about ten percent of the outbreaks as a particularly violent eruption, spewing with many pauses (up to five minutes) for about 1.5 hours)
• Great Geysir ( Iceland, every 24 to 30 hours, ten -meter-high eruption column ) active after a long inactivity since an earthquake in June 2000.
• Grotto Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, interval irregular but predictable, ten to 13 m high eruption column, one to twelve, rarely more than 26 hours of continuous, fountain -like)
• Old Faithful Geyser ( Yellowstone National Park, approximately 91 minutes interval IBE predictable, in 2003 minimum 45 minutes and maximum 124 minutes, 30-55 m high eruption column, two to five minutes in length, like a nozzle )
• Strokkur Geysir ( Iceland, about a ten minute interval, 20-30 m high eruption column, violent eruption short )

Geysers in poetry

Loving, even if not in the details correctly Karl May describes the geysers, sinter terraces and mud pots in Yellowstone National Park in its America story The Son of the Bear Hunter ( other titles: Frontier Hellcat - Part 1) in the chapter on P'a - wakon - tonka.

The End of a geyser

Why a geyser is inactive or expires

Due to the ongoing eruptions of the chimney ( eruption channel ) increases with time and the geyser is a hot spring. People created things artificial geysers in this respect are usually very stable, as the well is cased in general.

Earthquakes in the vicinity of a geyser can lead to a significant change in its eruption behavior. He can not just wake up again, he may be or go out and inactive.

The construction of geothermal power plants near geysers usually leads to the fact that the geysers erupt not because the groundwater level and the temperature of the water that feeds the geyser decline.

The addition of detergents such as dish detergent or soap for spa water in order to provoke an outbreak that affects duration also detrimental to the eruption activity. Where this practice was customary to show off tourists an outbreak, it is now generally prohibited by legislation (for example, Strokkur, Iceland ).

Often, vandalism leads to the end of the eruption of a geyser activity. If thrown stones or objects into the vent, the eruption activity may cease. Most of the eruption channel is clogged, the pressure of the eruption is not enough to eject the foreign body and the geyser is hot spring.

The most spectacular end of a geyser is imminent when the rock surrounding the vapor pressure can not resist. This leads to the explosion of the geyser. (Example: Porkchop Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin, Yellowstone National Park exploded on September 5, 1989).

By people destroyed Geysers

Geysers are very sensitive natural phenomena. Through human intervention numerous geysers and Geyser were usually irretrievably destroyed.

The Ebony Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin ( Yellowstone National Park ) in 1950 was destroyed by throwing of stones, wood and debris. The same fate befell the minute geyser in the same region, by the pressure of another channel, the eruption height was, however, shrank to five percent of the original size.

The construction of geothermal plants brought the Beowawe Geyser, Spitfire Geyser, Teakettle Geyser, Geyser Pincushion and about 23 other geysers on the Beowawe geyser field in Nevada in 1950 to dry up. The remaining geysers in this field dried up in 1987.

Also in Nevada many geysers have been destroyed by the construction of a geothermal power plant in Steamboat Springs Geyser field.

The construction of such power plants have fallen victim to numerous geysers in Iceland and New Zealand.

Definition of Terms

In connection with geysers terms are often used, which are translated from the English language.

Active Geyser

A geyser is considered active if it had an eruption within the last two years. This definition is an arbitrary convention and used the scheme.

Nozzles Grand Geyser (English: " Cone Type Geyser ", translated: " cone geyser " )

Jet -like geysers have a narrow water and steam. They have no or only a very small pond, which hardly affects the water jet. The mouth of the eruption channel does not necessarily reside on a sinter cones, but the ejected water can not collect in deeper pools above the eruption channel. Corresponds Rinehart model A or B. For example, Old Faithful.

Inactive Geyser (English: "dormant Geyser " )

A geyser is considered inactive if it showed no eruptive behavior within the last two years. This definition is an arbitrary convention and used the scheme. An inactive geyser may well be active again ( Giant Geyser, Yellowstone National Park, Big Geyser, Iceland ).

Interval

There are two definitions for this term:

• The time period between the beginning of an eruption until the beginning of the next. The abbreviation of the English -speaking world is IBE: Interval Between Eruptions.
• The time from the end of a flare from the beginning of the next.

The first definition is used primarily in connection with the geysers in Yellowstone National Park, the second in connection with geysers outside of Yellowstone National Park, for example those in New Zealand. The specification of the interval should always be explained in this regard.

Fountain Grand Geyser (English: "Fountain Geyser Type " )

Fountain -like geysers are located in a pond and throw the water not in a sharp beam, but in a rush. The eruption can be divided into several outbreaks ( the definition of GOSA making this mandatory ). However, in order to describe the course of an eruption is not enough, the distinction between " jet -like" or " fountain -like" from. Here more complex models should be used. Corresponds Rinehart Model D to F. Example of a fountain geyser -like: Grand Geyser.

Incorrect geysers

"Wrong Geysers " can be just as impressive as true geysers. Whether artificial geysers and Kaltwassergeysire are a natural monument, is controversial. The term "false geyser " is not to be regarded as an evaluation, but arranged in a system. In the English speaking world is known as a false Geysers " misnamed geysers ".

There are three types of false Geysers: man- produced "artificial geysers ", " Kaltwassergeysire " and " continuously erupting geysers ".

Artificial Geyser

If in geothermally active areas of geothermal heated caves or aquifers drilled that have an adequate water supply, can be formed under appropriate conditions geysers that have an eruption behavior as natural geysers. A well-known artificial geyser, for example, the Old Faithful of California in Calistoga, Napa Valley ( about 30 minutes interval, eruption duration of three to four minutes, outbreak height 20 to 33 meters). Contrast, cheated at Soda Springs in Idaho with timer and valve.

Cold water geyser (English " Geyser eruption Controlled " )

In Kaltwassergeysiren is the pressure at which the water is driven out of the eruption channel, generated not by steam, but by dissolved in water or escaping in caves and suddenly ausperlendes carbon dioxide. Known Kaltwassergeysire in German-speaking countries of Wall End Born ( eruption height about 2 to 4 meters, interval about 35 minutes) and the Geysir Andernach ( 60 m highest cold water geyser in the world, interval about 100 minutes). In Slovakia, the Herlianský geyser is at Herľany.

Continuously erupting geyser (English " Perpetual Spouter " )

A continuously erupting geyser geyser is not in the proper sense ( a geyser is characterized by its occurring at intervals eruptive behavior ) but a thermal spring that constantly ejects like a geyser hot water or hot water and steam. Porkchop Geyser in Yellowstone National Park was ahead of its explosion such a " Perpetual Spouter ". Also, the Fly Geyser north of Gerlach, Nevada, USA, is both artificial origin ( a source hole was associated with a hydrothermal source) and a Perpetual Spouter.

Geysers as a biotope

Geysers, which was held earlier because of the heat for sterile, are inhabited by archaea and bacteria that can withstand up to 100 degrees water temperature. See details in hyperthermophiles.

Geysirrekorde

The geyser with the highest eruptions of the earth is the Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park. The highest throw height of the fountain that was ever observed was 130 m. A large eruption is rare in Steamboat, but then he reached heights of at least 76 m.

The geyser with the highest eruptions in history was the Waimangu Geyser in New Zealand with a fountain to 460 m altitude. The geyser existed only by 1900 until 1904. He was buried by a landslide.

Grot Yubileinyi in the valley Dolina Geiserow on the Kamchatka Peninsula throws high and wide. The fountain is ejected at an angle and reaches a height of about 33 m and a width of up to 76 m.

The most regular intervals were measured in Yellowstone National Park over the last years at the Riverside Geyser and Castle Geyser if not just break out in small eruptions, it surpasses Riverside Geyser even on regularity.

On the Neptune moon Triton, there Stickstoffgeysire that reach up to eight kilometers altitude.