Greater Short-toed Lark
Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella brachydactyla )
The Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella brachydactyla ) is a species of bird in the family of larks ( Alaudidae ). This small Lerchenart colonized large parts of the southern Palearctic from North West Africa and Spain to China. In Western and Central Europe are the northernmost breeding population in central France and Hungary. The Short-toed Lark inhabits dry, tree - and bush -less open landscapes such as dry grasslands and semi-deserts and wasteland and Ödflächen in the cultural landscape. The species is depending on the area of distribution predominantly medium-to long-distance migrant and wintering mainly on the southern edge of the Sahara in the transition zone between the Sahel and desert and southern Asia. In the northern part of Central Europe, the Short-toed Lark is a very rare but regular migrant especially in April and May and in October and November.
The European population of the species has been declining since 1970, the nature of the IUCN however, is regarded as uncritical ( " least concern " ) due to the large distribution area and the very high overall population worldwide.
Features
Short-toed Larks are small, pale gray-brown and whitish colored larks with a short, conical beak. The shield springs are very long, so that the hand swing tips including protrude only slightly.
With a body length of 14 to 16 cm, the species is only slightly larger than a Woodlark. The ground color of the upper side is sand colored light yellowish brown or gray. The top of the head can also be reddish brown. Top of the head and upper back are striped lengthwise finely dark on this reason, the rump is beige color. The swing and the shield springs are dark gray-brown with pale brown seams. The large and middle coverts have broad yellowish to whitish tips that form conspicuous wing-bars in flight two. The tail is also gray-brown, the outermost (sixth ) control spring has outside a yellowish white wedge.
The species shows a strong, off-white over eye-streak, which ends at the trailing edge of the ear-coverts, and is bounded below by a fine dark eyes glancing. Cheeks and ear-coverts are almost ungestrichelt limited wide white monochrome gray and brown back and down. Cheeks and chin stripe are narrow and dark gray-black beard streak is white. Most individuals have a narrow dark breast spot, the sides of the chest including the upper flanks and dashed lines are weak dark on yellowish ground. The rest of the chest and throat are just like the rest of hull bottom solid white. The iris is dark brown, the legs are flesh, the slender beak is horn colored.
Vocalizations
The song is sung by the males predominantly in Singflug, rarely sitting on the ground or on stones. The song often begins when departing from the floor. The verses are " Pütt - Truell - ual - ual " initiated mostly by short, faltering sounds like the other song can also be predominantly or entirely of good imitations of other bird calls and songs during the ascent in 20 to 50 m height, for example from imitations Call of the kestrel or the crested lark. The actual Singflug is an irregular wave flight, which it expressed, quite monotonous song consists of short, again and again repeated verses like " tipzetízerlilü ", "tip te tízirtuíze " or " Tschöp - zöp - zirile - ürilezizüé ", not unlike the singing of Whinchat, Whitethroat or bunting. The Sing Flights usually last 3 to 8, sometimes up to 26 minutes.
Distribution and habitat
The Short-toed Lark colonized large parts of the southern Palearctic. In the east-west direction of the spread of Northwest Africa and Spain to China last. In a north-south direction, the more or less closed area extends to the west of northern Spain, southern France and northern Italy to North Africa to the northern edge of the Sahara; further east along the northern steppe about border on the Volga River in Russia at 52 ° N and 54 ° N in Kazakhstan south to Syria, Iran and Iraq, and to the southwest of Afghanistan. In the central Asian highlands, the distribution eventually extends from the Chinese province of Xinjiang and the highlands of Tibet to the Himalayas on the northern edge of India. In Western Europe, the sporadic and geographically isolated northernmost breeding reserves are located in central France and Hungary.
The species inhabits dry, tree - and bush -less open landscapes such as dry grasslands and semi-deserts and wasteland and Ödflächen in the cultural landscape. The northernmost occurrence in Western and Central Europe are structurally comparable to special sites in France on the coast in sand dunes and on shallow rocky islands; in the local inland on small airfields, Graded land and large, most with concrete slabs or gravel provided as a substrate storage bins for sugar beet. In Hungary, the species is found only in the salt steppes in the east of the Great Hungarian Plain.
System
The number of subspecies of the Short-toed Lark is controversial. J. Haffer 7 recognizes a total of poorly differentiated subspecies, pointing out that the definition of this subspecies " quite artificial " and this, further research is needed:
- Calandrella brachydactyla brachydactyla ( Leisler, 1814); from Spain east to southern Russia.
- Calandrella b. rubiginosa From Wood, 1913; North Africa; Staining more intense than in the nominate form, top of the head always maroon.
- Calandrella b. hermonensis Tristram, 1865; Syria and Palestine; total grayer than the nominate form, reddish brown upper head at about 20 % of the individuals.
- Calandrella b. artemisiana Banjkowski, 1913; Turkey, Transcaucasia, Central Asian steppes and Iran; Color paler than in the previous subspecies, top and bottom dashed hardly knows almost completely.
- Calandrella b. longipennis ( Eversmann, 1848); Kazakhstan and northern Inner Asia; Colors again similar to the nominate form, darker and browner than previous subspecies with distinct penciling.
- Calandrella b. dukhunensis ( Sykes, 1832); Highlands of Tibet and Western China; Colors richer than in previous subspecies and bigger.
- Calandrella b. hungarica Horváth, 1956; Hungary; Smaller than nominate, without top brown and more brown gray with strong dashes, underside gray and darker than any other subspecies.
Nutrition
The food consists of both animal and from vegetable ingredients. In summer as in winter quarters are mainly small insects eaten smaller ants and beetles primarily, but also other invertebrates such as spiders and small snails. In the plant food seeds of grasses and Knöterichgewächsen dominate.
Reproduction and age
Short-toed Larks lead a monogamous marriage season. The nest is created on the ground, preferably similar to a single larger plant, a larger stone or a soil survey. It is often built with a slope of about 30 ° and mostly geared especially in the late breeding season to the north, so it is shaded by the supporting structure and the increased nest edge. The nest consists of a fairly deep depression, which is being built outside of coarser and further inward of fine plant material. The actual nest hollow is often lined with animal hair, feathers, or in their absence with a very fine plant material. If the nest hollow can not be sufficiently deepened because of a hard ground, the nest area is populated in this field up to the nest top edge with small lumps of earth, stones, plant parts or pieces of pet waste, the standing depending on the nest plant a ramp, an increased half-ring or free nests a shallow truncated cone is formed. The nest made solely by the female.
The eggs are laid, depending on the geographic location variable, in North Africa, partly in early March, but usually in early April, in South Western Europe mainly from the middle of April in Southeastern Europe from the end of April and beginning of May at the earliest in Hungary, mostly in the second half of May. Usually two broods are performed each season. The nest consists of 3 to 4, rarely 5 eggs, which are pale brown mottled yellowish to white or greenish white ground in very different intensity to olive brown. The incubation period lasts 13 days. Incubation of the eggs takes place as well as the Hudern the nestlings exclusively by the female. Both parents feed them, but the proportion of the male is smaller. The young birds leave the nest 8 to 10 days and can already fly low after 11 to 12 days. Sexual maturity is reached in the first year of life.
Information on the average age is not available; proven by the ringing maximum age is 8 years.
Hiking
The species is predominantly medium-to long-distance migrant, depending on the area of distribution. The departure southwest European birds in mid- August to late September with individual stragglers until early October. In Ukraine, the last Wegzügler end of October or early November be observed. Short-toed Larks European wintering mainly on the southern edge of the Sahara in the transition zone between the Sahel and desert, as well as also the most favorable locations within the Sahara. In low levels, the species overwinters further north in North Africa, Winter evidence in southern Europe are exceptions. Asian birds spend the winter in the north- west of India, less common in Pakistan and the Middle East as well as in northeastern Africa. The species is gregarious outside the breeding season and forms, especially in the winter quarters loose flocks with 100 to over 1000 individuals.
The first Heimzügler be the earliest, usually found in South Western Europe to March 7 until around March 15, the vernal migration lasts until mid-April. The breeding grounds are the end of March to mid-April in occupied Dalmatia, Hungary quite uniform around the 7th of April. Asian birds leave the breeding area in September last Wegzüglern until the end of October, the return migration takes place from mid-March to mid-April. In the northern part of Central Europe, the Short-toed Lark is a very rare but regular migrant and visiting especially in April and May and in October and November. The majority of the detected in Western and Northern Europe in the spring of birds apparently belongs to southern European populations whose Heimzugweg too far leads ( Zugprolongation ), while in autumn probably reach predominantly Asian Short-toed Larks Europe.
Inventory and risk
The world population of the species is very large. Secured Information on world stock does not exist, the IUCN is a very rough estimate of 91-840 million individuals. In winter quarters on the southern edge of the Sahara, the Short-toed Lark was in the 1950s in some areas, the common lark at all, in India, the large winter flocks are considered hazards of air traffic.
The European level, including Turkey estimated BirdLife International in 2004 to 7.3 -14m breeding pairs. The largest holdings have Turkey with 3 to 6 million, European Russia with 2 to 5 million and Spain with from 2.2 to 2.6 million pairs. In Spain, Russia and the inventory between 1970 and 2000 fell sharply, remained in Turkey, however, stable. Overall, BirdLife International classifies the European stock therefore be decreased ( " declining "). Worldwide, the type of the IUCN is regarded as uncritical ( " least concern " ) due to the large distribution area and the very high total stock.