Historical criticism

The historical- critical method is developed in the 18th and 19th centuries set of methods for the study of historical texts. She is known primarily from the biblical exegesis. Its goal is to understand a ( biblical ) text in its historical context and then finally interpreted, the reconstruction of the presumed advantages and formation history of the text and its situational involvement in historical events plays a special role. Important methodological disciplines of historical-critical method, the textual criticism, the text analysis, redaction criticism, literary criticism, form criticism and tradition criticism. The historical- critical method is still in the Protestant and Catholic churches, the standard method of Bible interpretation.

3.1 Textual Criticism: Comparison of manuscripts
3.2 Translation from Hebrew or Greek
3.3 Text Analysis: The structure of the text
3.4 Redaction criticism: the handling of the author with his sources
3.5 Literary criticism: Reconstruction of the sources
3.6 Form Criticism: Determination of text genre
3.7 Tradition History: The underlying oral tradition
3.8 concepts and design history: how the ideas developed
3.9 History of Religion: Comparison with non-biblical texts
3:10 Summary Interpretation and theological statement (s)

6.1 Historical-Critical Method
6.2 For each sub- disciplines

General

Scientific work is characterized in that it is not defined by its results, but the fact that all relevant facts be checked with intersubjectively comprehensible methods and, where appropriate, can be falsified. If science is claimed, it is therefore necessary to give an account of the methods used. Since the Enlightenment, the view has prevailed that the meaning of a text must be worked out by the author wanted to bring in his historical context for expression before further interpretation could be made. This approach is the core of the historical-critical method.

The term historical- critical refers to a combination of two basic assumptions of this hermeneutical methods:

Historically, this method because it assumes that the form of the text to be examined has a story. So may have been transmitted orally for centuries and have thereby undergone numerous changes such as a Sage. This prognosis may be recorded by two different writers. The printing of experienced several editions, which was corrective action or intervention for other reasons in the text. The text that currently appears in a word collection is not in this form originally, but he has a history.
Critical is the method because it assumes that there is generally insightful criteria for the scientific examination of the historical form of the text. This does not mean that every scientist with his inquiries must come to the same conclusion. But every single step investigation must still be comprehensible for others; whether it is actually understood, is a question of the quality of the argument. Different reviews of details early as in other scientific disciplines, different results.

Development

The historical- critical method was an achievement of modern times and represented a break with the early church and medieval biblical interpretation dar. Unlike in those interpretations considered the historical- critical method to be interpreted the word as a child of history and not as a predicate to her. Such came through subordination " universal truths " to reason in the Enlightenment in the 17th century about.

Protestant Theology

A crucial role for the Protestant theology took coined by the Enlightenment theologian Johann Salomo Semler: He is considered the " father" of the historical-critical method in theology. He stressed first in 1771 a " free examination of the canon " and can take the place of its generality, a " religious history of mankind ." So he turned the writings of the Bible as evidence of specific times, places, historical and cultural eras.

Finally, then crystallized in the 19th century, the three most important tasks of the historical- critical method - with the help of history and literature, linguistics, sociology, and others - out:

Roman Catholic theology

The Roman Catholic Church was long the historical-critical method dismissive of. So especially suffered the beginnings of a historical-critical interpretation of the anti-modernist flow in the Roman Catholic Church in the second half of the 19th century. Until the mid-20th century, the historical- critical work has been hampered by the Antimodernisteneids and negative decisions of the Pontifical Biblical Commission. A change to the historical-critical method only came back with the Dogmatic Constitution Dei Verbum of the Second Vatican Council. Here is the full doctrinal readiness is first expressed to promote the historical and literary study of the environment and the conditions of origin of the biblical texts.

The method steps of the historical- critical method

The historical- critical method is now in the Protestant and Catholic theology as a standard method of Bible interpretation, even if the exegetical technical discussion since the 1970s increasingly also other design approaches turns ( cf. Biblical exegesis ). The use of the historical -critical method to the Bible assumes that biblical exegesis " a piece of historical scholarship " (Rudolf Bultmann ), the biblical text is acknowledged as a historically shaped and is not taken only literally as pure revelation. The interpretation of Bible portions in their historical context takes as true that Jesus was a Jew, or that the rule " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth " had to be understood at the time as an express commandment of moderation.

The historical- critical method is based on the history of the now traditional text. Certain actions and words (eg Jesus) were first collected and handed down orally / narrated been then verschriftlicht and summarized in individual writings. These scriptures were written over a period of many centuries, again and again, with not only accidental writing and translation errors came into the text, but also aware of the changes made ( editors ). The historical-critical method attempts to reconstruct this evolution to the original text / word to approach again in its historical context.

To filter out copyists and additions, one first conducts a textual criticism, at the end of the restoration of the presumed original text is available. This can then be analyzed using the text analysis on his testimony intention to go. In the larger context, one can also use the redaction criticism / history ask about the intention of the total retail writing. Next, one tries to work out the various written sources. This can succeed with the help of literary criticism. The form criticism and tradition history of contact then the goal to develop from the reconstructed written sources, oral traditions. In support, the steps motive history and religious history used to illuminate the historical context situation of the spoken word. The completion of each historical-critical approach is a summary interpretation.

Textual Criticism: Comparison of manuscripts

Up to the printed version of the Gutenberg Bible, the text was in manuscript and was therefore subject to some modifications for different reasons over the centuries, not least pure Abschreibfehlern. The developed in the 16th century by Erasmus first critically edited text Bible, Textus Receptus is the however in some places, though usually overtaken by the research of the last 500 years only in details. As a basic text today are manuscripts and manuscript fragments from the 2nd - 4th Century AD for the New Testament and the Old Testament a complete Hebrew manuscript, the Codex Leningradensis from the period around 1000 AD, the text of loyalty, however, is confirmed by the finds at Qumran. Most newer translations of the Bible are already aware of the current research results. The Hebrew text edition of the Old Testament ( Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia ) and the Greek text edition of the New Testament ( Eberhard Nestle / Aland, Novum Testamentum Grace ) contain notes, at which points of the biblical text different text variants exist in the oldest manuscript finds. First developed for the weighing of the evidence after handwriting quantity and quality Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752) scientific criteria. Since then, plausible reasons can specify certain readings is preferable to other ways of reading, "absolute" certainty does not exist here, however.

Translation from Hebrew or Greek

After the original Hebrew or Greek text has been found, it can be translated into German. This requires the best possible knowledge of exegetes Biblical Hebrew and Ancient Greek ( some chapters of the Old Testament are also written in Aramaic ) - which is why theology students today need to learn these ancient languages - and on the other also basic knowledge in linguistics and translation studies is necessary. You have to understand how languages work. There are also in the Hebrew and Greek phenomena such as polysemy ( ambiguity ), stylistic devices, proverbial phrases, poetry, etc., which should be understood as such. Some items must be circumscribed by longer expressions in German. The exegete exegete and therefore must be able to keep a good balance between a slavish word - for-word translation, but does not reveal that actually meant, and between free paraphrases, although capture the content good, but very far from the wording of Remove the original text. Who wants to buy a German Bible, has the choice of conformal translations (eg, NIV ), content- faithful translations of the Bible (such as the Good News Bible ) and the translations of the "middle" ( NRSV, NASB ).

Text Analysis: The structure of the text

Although of / BibelauslegerIn has at this point already a provisional German translation of the text at hand, but all refer the following steps for the sake of exactness in principle on the Hebrew or Greek original text. The third step listed here text analysis not really belong to the classic historical-critical method, but is already specifically included in newer methods books. While the classic historical-critical method has mostly been on concentrated to reconstruct the presumed genesis of the biblical text ( " diachronic " ), you go to the exegesis recently strengthened to about to look at the Bible text as such in its final form ( "synchronous" ). Before you " split " the text in its preliminary stages, he should first also come himself to advantage. For this purpose, use is made in the text analysis methods from linguistics and literary studies: on the creation of semantic fields of terms of the text, on the structure and development of the "story" as well as to the drawing of the narrative figures by the biblical narrator ( narrative theory ), on the Aktantenmodell of Greimas or on the Semantic structure analysis, which helps trace the linguistic- grammatical structure of a text.

Editorial story: the handling of the author with his sources

The step methods of redaction criticism ( redaction criticism ) describes the way in which a later author has processed the sources of each previous written tradition stage and with what intention he has written his writing. In this way emerges whose distinct theological profile for each biblical author. In the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, for example, are said to have resorted to the Gospel of Mark in accordance with the two- source theory in many sections of text, examines the way in which they differ from the Gospel of Mark. On the basis of editorial changes their own theological profile is determined. Such editorial changes may be: stylistic adjustments; Conversion sections of text; cuts; extensions; Merging of different traditions; theological interpretations of the literary text. In part, the composition criticism is included in these methods step, ie the analysis of how the entire work is structured.

Literary criticism: Reconstruction of the sources

The biblical exegesis, it also sees as one of its main tasks is to reconstruct the written sources of the biblical text by means of literary criticism. In contrast to the literary text analysis, literary criticism is very old. The method of literary criticism emerged in the exegesis of the Bible in the 18th and 19th centuries from the need to explain the contradictions, tensions, duplications and linguistic differences between the Bible texts. Corresponding observations have already been made at the time of the early church, but then still presented no real problem ( for Origen showed the contradictions between the Gospels, that the reader should pay attention to the spiritual and not the literal meaning of the Bible, Augustine, however, tried the harmony the Gospels to prove ). With the awakening of historical consciousness in the Enlightenment, however, the Bible exegesis tried to give a historical answer to the problem of contradictions, on the other hand you now wanted to work out the oldest, most authentic sources, which is the highest historical value has been attached. Thus, the literary criticism tries to establish whether the author of a biblical text has resorted to written sources. Especially in Old Testament texts, but also in some New Testament texts is probably assume that the individual biblical text has a long history, so it is composed of several sources and it was revised again and again. The ultimate goal is to reconstruct the texts of the different editorial stages as possible in the text. But how do you find out sources and arrangements, if there is no external evidence? In the book of Genesis has been observed, for example, that some passages speak of God as "Yahweh" ( the Israelite God's name), other texts just call him "Elohim" ( = God ), and some texts combine both names. In conjunction with other observations, it was concluded that two sources must have been based on that one was a Yahwist, the other written by a Elohist. Or from linguistic and substantive grounds can Isaiah 40-55 and 56-66 other authors assign as ( the basic text of ) Isaiah 1-39, etc. To distinguish different sources from each other, paying attention to the sudden appearance of new people, places, times, or other issues, contradictions or missing links between individual verses or repetitions in the text that interfere with a tight narrative flow.

In the area of the New Testament, it was found, for example, that the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke have used in many sections of text on the Gospel of Mark. The literary criticism is now investigating the ways in which variations exist where further additions were made and where completely different sources have been used.

The most important literary-critical hypotheses were developed in the 19th century and are in a modified form to this day, for example, the hypothesis JEDP the Pentateuch or the two- source theory in the Synoptic Gospels. However, many commentators have become more cautious, to reconstruct several precursors of a biblical text literally, because the criteria of source separation are very subjective in part and the - contradictory - literary- formation hypotheses have become almost unmanageable numerous today.

Form history: Determination of text genre

Next, the linguistic form of the text studied ( form criticism ). In the final text ( and all of its precursors ) must be clarified: Is it a miracle story? To a parable? To a prophetic exhortation? Because in order to understand a text, you should have assigned the text genre properly. A parable for example, will not be understood historically, but as a comparative narrative that will transport and illustrate a general truth in a certain point. Jesus used this narrative genre very often ( known is the parable of the prodigal son in Luke 15:11-32 ). After assigning the text to a particular type of text one can analyze whether and at what points the actual writing of the ideal-typical genus differs in order and to draw some conclusions. The shape of history found in the Bible exegesis two versions, the so-called " older form history " and the " newer form history ".

A) The " older form history " was created in 1920 with three publications by Karl Ludwig Schmidt, Martin Dibelius and Rudolf Bultmann. The determination of the type of text should not only serve as a framework understanding, but should help trace the oral tradition before the oldest written sources very closely. The basic idea is the following: Every text genre has always been a particular seat in life, that is a typical situation in which they will be used. Thus, the " Sitz im Leben " was of prayers or teaching texts of worship and Christian education, the missionary proclamation of the miracle stories about it. In the typical tradition this situation also their origin was usually seen; So you could very easily determine in which situation and for what purpose created the early Christian community Jesus stories now. If - by the literary criticism already freed from all subsequent written additives - could have served several purposes oral narrative, a target point is assigned to each in turn its own oral tradition stage ( for example, in the exegesis of Jacob's struggle at the Jabbok in Genesis 32.23-33 ). The possibility that an oral tradition also may have a historical "core" is not excluded by this procedure, but significantly minimized. The Bible exegesis in the first half of the 20th century, while the difference criterion for the ' historical Jesus ' of the biblical texts herauszuschälen their focus: The reconstructed as Jesus was basically neither Jewish nor Christian trains, even though Jesus was undisputed Jew. Therefore, the difference criterion is supplemented in today's historical Jesus research by the coherence criterion ( Gerd Theissen ).

B ) While the generic determination in the " older form history " had mainly the purpose to reconstruct the oral history of the text, breaking the " newer form history " completely with this objective. Because " the possibility of diachronic inquiry using form-critical research is increasingly being called into question ": One must also reckon with a tradition continuum between Jesus and the church, especially if the training of the disciples leaned through Jesus to the rabbinical schools and the social role of bearers of the tradition is respected (eg Apostle ) in early Christianity. The tradition might have been formed in the early church, but is not necessarily invented by it. That have been "pure form " at the beginning of the oral tradition always, is not mandatory. In addition, the older form history was still very self-assured in being able to reconstruct the various stages of the oral tradition in the text - this research shows that oral tradition can vary in the wording.

The " newer form history ", however, omitted entirely on winning from the form of the text hypotheses about the history of the text. Instead, the form and genre of the final text will be all the more appreciated in more detail: First, to describe the individual shape of the single text, then look for one similar texts from biblical and extra-biblical ancient literature and attempts to create a common generic scheme to investigate last individual deviations from the generic scheme and the consequences arising out of the understanding. For shape analysis, there are now very sophisticated classifications of ancient literary genres and sub- genres ( K. Berger).

Tradition History: The underlying oral tradition

The tradition history ( tradition criticism ) is characterized - in conjunction with the shape of history - the development of the oral tradition by which preceded the first written precursors of the text. In some exegetical methodologies it is also called " tradition history ". As a tradition is rarely recorded in detail width in a text, the recognition of a tradition based mostly on striking key concepts, images, phrases or word ensembles that remind the exegetes to content Complex and draw his attention to parallels in other texts.

Concept and design history: how the ideas developed

(This step methods is sometimes referred to as a critique of tradition. )

While literary criticism, form and tradition history are interested in the total oral and written precursors of the Biblical text, the / the exegete the history of individual expressions of the biblical text is now trying to trace methods in this step. For example, in New Testament texts from the " Son of David ", of "justice ", the "Holy Spirit " of "law" of "gospel" or the "Lamb of God " is mentioned, it must be the former idea background of these expressions ancient biblical author be reconstructed. This is done on the basis of previous and contemporaneous biblical and extra-biblical texts in which similar words and ideas are sought. Whether a term is to be interpreted rather in its early Jewish (including the Old Testament ) roots or rather Roman- Hellenistic background, however, is often disputed. The same applies to the interpretation of expressions in Old Testament texts. The realization that terms are to be interpreted in their historical context, dating back to the beginnings of textual interpretation, the method of design history in recent centuries, however, be further refined in the exegesis. The results of the design history can be found in the great theological lexicons ( ThWAT, ThWNT ) or summarized for the reader of the Bible in Bible encyclopedias.

History of Religion: Comparison with non-biblical texts

The biblical texts have not evolved in a vacuum, but rather were related and exchange to other ways of thinking in their cultural contexts. It is specifically in this step about methods to draw in formulations or thoughts of the biblical text and its hypothetical precursors in the general ancient Near Eastern history, religion and culture and in the Hellenistic- Roman and early Jewish historical and religious-cultural background. In the study of theology, therefore, knowledge from neighboring historical disciplines is mediated. So you can work out for example, that Proverbs 22.17 to 23.11 for the part BC has literal echoes of an Egyptian text in 1100, the teaching of Amenemope. The Flood narrative ( Genesis 6-8) has illuminating parallels in the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Paul used according to the description in Acts 26:14 a formulation of Aeschylus, Agamemnon ( " heavy it is you against the pricks "); or the writer of Titus letter quotes the Greek poet Epimenides, De oraculis: " The Cretans are always liars ... " (Titus 1:12). Even more numerous are indirect cases, the association, which is, however, not should succumb " Parallelomanie " which immediately suspected a dependency relationship to extra-biblical texts at each low similarity. The history of religion is compared in the Bible exegesis intensively operated since the end of the 19th century ( cf. Religionsgeschichtliche School, Bible Babel - armed ).

Summary Interpretation and theological statement (s)

Finally, the formation of the biblical text is summarized again just in its individual oral and written tradition stages; thereby also the theological rationale for the textual changes should be clear. In addition, - but that goes beyond the historical-critical method also - to be asked, what role does the theme of the text within the Bible ( Biblical theology ) or Christian theology.

Critique of the historical-critical method

The theory-practice problem: From the scientific side is often criticized that the priests or pastors rarely in practice apply the historical-critical method, although each preparation of sermon or Bible lesson should be preceded by a scientific exegesis of the biblical text. Many " practitioners " but in turn complain that the historical-critical method is not especially helpful for sermon preparation. The theory-practice problem is interpreted by some as a crisis of classical exegesis: on the one hand, the biblical exegesis has a very sophisticated method of interpretation ( the historical-critical method), on the other hand, it is hardly used in the non-university practice, apparently because in this context, other issues and demands are placed on the interpretation of the Bible. Although in the current exegetical much professional debate is on the move, since the 1970s the number of design methods used in the Bible exegesis is growing rapidly (see Biblical exegesis ). However, the exegetical training of theologians usually further comprises only the historical-critical method, since other methods have yet to be established.

Distancing: The use of the historical -critical method causes a historical distancing of the boom from the Bible text. The historical- critical method alone can not clarify how the Bible text for the present can become important. In addition, the historical-critical method by the ornate detail work blocking the view of the whole. But it is not seen as a task of the historical- critical method, immediately to give a basis for the Christian life, but working out only the historical significance of a biblical text, the Interpretative within the meaning of hermeneutics reflect their requirements and methods.

The intra- scientific debate: The need for a methodological pluralism
The primacy of synchrony before the diachrony
The relationship between history and literature
The inadequacy of historical-critical questions to determine the intention of the biblical authors and their texts

Without them completely reject the New Testament scholar Klaus Berger sees the historical-critical method, as it is practiced today, some untenable border crossings: not convincing criteria for authenticity and inauthenticity of Jesus words
The statement that the Gospel of John is historically worthless, he considers bottomless
The denial of the miracles he sees as a modern ideological diktat
The " Easter ditch " (Jesus was a simple man and had been seen until after Easter as the Messiah ) he considers a shallow postulate

Leningrad Codex Kurt Aland Narrative criticism Augustine of Hippo Jahwist Documentary hypothesis Bible dictionary Flood myth History of religions school Biblical studies Biblical hermeneutics Deism Neology Criticism of the Bible Udo Schnelle Integrated Authority File

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