Islamic philosophy

The Islamic philosophy (Arabic الفلسفة الإسلامية = falsafa al - l - islamiya ) includes conceptually developed in the Islamic world philosophies. The authorization of the term is disputed. Is it like here to philosophy in the Islamic world, this captures among other Jewish philosophers, and therefore we also speak of Arabic Philosophy, Arabic -Islamic philosophy or philosophers of the Arab-Islamic culture. The scientific exploration of the themes covered in the subject areas of philosophy, Islamic studies and other Orientalist cultural studies.

Subject area

The scope of what "Islamic philosophy " describes may be different limited and interpreted. Oliver Leaman represents that it is about philosophy that has emerged in the context of Islamic culture. This description is based on neither the fact that Islamic philosophy has necessarily to do with religious issues, nor that they must be worn by Muslims.

Formative influences

As the name implies, " Islamic philosophy " refers to philosophical discussions in the Islamic culture. The main sources of classical or early Islamic philosophy are the philosophy of antiquity, with the Arab world came into contact with translations from the Greek, often via Syriac, in the course of Islamic expansion and then concentrated by translation company. Even religious traditions, beliefs, Islamic jurisprudence and life forms of Islam and the question of how they are compatible with philosophical concepts that characterize many debates Islamic philosophy.

9th - 11th century

" Philosophy " means in Arabic a distinct discipline in addition to eg grammar, biography of the Prophet ( Sira ), law ( fiqh ), or theology. Nevertheless, philosophically relevant concepts and discussions are partly also in other disciplines, such as the ijtihad. In particular, the systematic theology ( kalam ) discussed depending on the school and individual -specific expression of the representatives of numerous classical philosophical topics. One of the problems in how certain statements in the Qur'an and Prophet traditions ( hadith ), such as that God possess a hand, should be interpreted: the texts to be taken literally, or are they in the light of certain concepts, such as that of the immateriality and Simplicity God, to be interpreted? How then, if necessary, these concepts in more detail to understand? Another problem area is that of free will. This affirms for example, the religious school of Qadarites (Arabic: qadara, " have power "). It is denied by Dschabariten ( Gabr, " power ", " pressure" ), defending a fatalism. One of the cultural centers of Basra, where it comes in the second century of the Hijra to cleavage of the theological schools. Wasil ibn Ata is excluded because of doctrinal innovations. He established his own school, the Mu'tazilites. Among her central tenets:

Since the systematically elaborated positions of the Mu'tazilites one speaks of a systematic, " dialectical " theology in Islam, the so-called Ilm al - Kalam ( " science of the word " ), called their professional scientist " mutakallimun ". The originally used for the Mu'tazilites, then to other theological schools. The methodological advances have parallels or effects in other disciplines such as medicine or sociology.

The Caliph al - Ma'mun founded in the year 825 AD in Baghdad a cultural institute, called the House of Wisdom, which was also important translations were made and has been studied and commented on Greek philosophy.

Among the most important early Arab philosophers counted Al -Kindi, Al -Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes are. All process both influences of Aristotelianism as of Neoplatonism, but with different emphases. Similarly as for Jewish and Christian thinkers, these traditions were not combined in any way with their own faith traditions einfachhin. For example, Aristotle took an eternity of matter (see eternity of the world ) rather than a creation by God out of nothing. According to him, God thinks only himself most, nor is knowledge of general concepts considered, but not of individuals. What then is God's providence conceivable? As, according to ( possibly by Neoplatonic elements modified ) Aristotelian epistemology prophecy conceivable? As the way of salvation described in religious traditions fit to the destiny of man, which is, according to Aristotle in the theoretical- contemplative life, as to this important conception of the intellect? How does faith fit in an individual life after physical death (see immortality) to philosophical concepts of the soul? This is in accordance with abstruse remarks in Aristotle and his commentators understood that it is only a first qualification, which is empowered through education and excellence to union with the active intellect, which ( or is identified with this ) emanates from God. Further problems arise in the general metaphysics. Some theological schools, especially the Ash'arite, developed a theory that no stable substances exist, but only atoms of objects and moments in time that are created in each case directly by God, but not continue from its own assets in time. This can be equally understood as a counter to the extreme eternity of the world. The proof of God is then often developed using the proof passage for the createdness the world.

Even Jewish authors accept the methodology and concepts of the Arabic Kalam. One of the first Saadia Gaon 's ( 892-942 ), " Emunot ve Deot " discusses his work ( The Book of Beliefs and Opinions ) also the problems of creation of matter, the unity of God, his attributes, the soul, etc.. His position on the creation: God created the world from nothing ( creatio ex nihilo ), as the Bible in the Old Testament ( Genesis 1 ) reported an eternity of matter does not exist. He also criticized the atomic theory of mutakallimun, it is contrary to reason and religion. To prove the consistency and unity of God, he draws on arguments of mutakallimun. Only the attributes of essence ( sifat adh dhatia ) can be attributed to God, not the attributes of action ( sifat -al- fi'aliya ). The soul is a finer substance than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia contradicts the mutakallimun who regarded the soul as a commercial ( arad ). His argument uses the following assumptions of the Arab Kalam ". Only a substance may be the substrate of a commercial " (ie, a non- essential characteristic of a thing ). Saadia argues: " If the soul was just a commercial, they could not even have such accidents as wisdom, joy, love, etc. "

12th Century

Al -Ghazali (1005-1111) gives a lecture in his book al - Tahafut Falasafa ( " The Incoherence of the Philosophers " ) initially numerous teachings of the Arab philosophers, especially Avicenna, whom he then attempts to refute.

The Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages takes authors such as Farabi and Avicenna numerous influences. The relationship between religious and philosophical tradition is weighted differently. Judah ha -Levi, who was also active as a poet, for example, is similar to Ghazali, though philosophically trained and this is especially Neoplatonic ideas close, but refuses to strong influence of philosophical criteria and especially in some usual peripatetic traditions teachings. His work Kuzari also contains a critique of the attempt to base beliefs by philosophical apologetics. He wrote: ". Anyone who is convinced of religious truths without examining it or think about it, who has reached the highest stage of perfection in my eyes " He reduced the rates of mutakallimun to the proof of the unity of God to ten, she described in detail, and then to conclude with the words: " is the Kalam give us more information about God and His attributes, as the Prophet has given us? "

Unlike Judah ha -Levi, Maimonides argues decided that Jewish intellectuals need good knowledge of philosophy, especially Farabi, alone, to risk not many faith errors. Even his halakhic writings contain metaphysical and epistemological chapters, the contents for educated Jews constituted a necessary and religious knowledge. Maimonides was almost exactly the same time to Averroes, wrote his philosophical work but probably not without (demonstrable ) knowledge of writings of his contemporaries.

Averroes is the most effective historically most important Arab philosopher of the 12th century. On the criticism of al -Ghazali, he responded with a counter- criticism. His philosophical position claimed special closeness to that which he sees as the genuinely Aristotelian doctrine. Much of his work is in numerous commentaries on works of Aristotle, whose effective historical rank is clear is that the Latin Middle Ages Averroes often simply referred to as " the commentator ". In a separate document ( Fasl al - Maqāl ) he represents sets a definition of the relationship between philosophy and theology dar. Accordingly, there is a religious duty for intellectuals to philosophical education, while less educated philosophical lessons to be withhold. As in Peripatetic tradition widely usual, Ibn Rushd also represented that the spheres possess spiritual nature, and that there is a universal emanation, through which is activity and change, as well as the forms of things and the thought content is transmitted. According to Averroes, the existence of the world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina said (as a concession to the Orthodox ), but also a necessity. He wrote: "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise it would be a creation ex nihilo. "

Numerous texts of Arabic philosophy were, inter alia, translated by members of the family of Tibboniden, Narboni and Gersonides into Hebrew and commenting, especially also works of Averroes. It is important especially the School of Translators of Toledo, where numerous transfers were worked into Latin.

Later Islamic Philosophy

The Islamic philosophy after Averroes was not been received in the Latin Middle Ages to the same extent, especially hardly whose performance is still noteworthy as a tradition.

Other important Islamic philosophers are, for example, Ibn Arabi, Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra the school. Some of these schools have until now active supporters in the Islamic world. Some other important names are listed below and sorted according to whether they are stronger reception are Shiite or Sunni beliefs.

Thinkers who themed no Shiite beliefs in the rule:

• Philosophers: Abhari بحرى
• Ibn Sab'in ابن سبعين
• Kateb -e- Qazwini كاتب قزوينى
• Rashid ad-Din Fazlollah رشيدالدين فضل الله
• Qutb -ad -din Razi قطب الدين رازى

• Fakhr ad-Din ar - Razi فخرالدين رازى
• Idschi ايجى
• Taftazani تفتازانى
• Dschordschani جرجانى

• Ibn Taymiyah and his students ابن تيميه

• Zakariya Qazwini زكرياى قزوينى
• Shams al-Din Muhammad Amuli شمس الدين محمد آملى
• Ibn Khaldun ابن خلدون

• Ruzbehan Balqi Shirazi روزبهان بلقى شيرازى
• Attar Neyshaburi عطار نيشابورى
• Umar Suhrawardi عمر سهروردى
• Ibn Arabi and his school ابن عربى
• Nadschmeddin Kubra نجم الدين كبرى
• Simnani سمنانى
• Ali Hamedani على همدانى
• Moulana Jalal ad-Din ar - Rumi مولانا
• Mahmoud Schabestari and Shams ad-Din Lahidschi محمود شبسترى و شمس الدين لاهيجى
• Abd al- Karim Dschili عبدالكريم جيلى
• Ne'matollah Vali Kermani نعمت الله ولى كرمانى
• The Horufi and Bektashi حروفى و بكتاشى
• Jami جامى
• Hossein Kaschefi حسين كاشفى
• Abd al- Qani Nablosi عبدالغنى نابلسى
• Only Ali Shah نورعلى شاه
• Zahabiyye ذهبيه

Thinkers who themed mainly Shiite beliefs:

• Nasir ad -Din at- Tusi خواجه نصيرالدين توسي
• The Ismailis اسماعيليان
• Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi and the Illuminist شهاب الدين سهروردى و مكتب اشراق
• Jaldaki جلدكى
• Sadr al-Din Daschtaki and the Shiraz School صدرالدين دشتكى و مكتب شيراز
• Mir Damad and the school of Isfahan ميرداماد و مكتب اصفهان
• I Fendereski and his students ميرفندرسكى
• Sadr al-Din Shirazi, known as Mulla Sadra and transcendent theosophy ملاصدرا و حكمت متعاليه
• Rajab Ali Tabrizi and his students رجب على تبريزى
• Qazi Sa'id Qumi قاضى سعيد قمى
• The schools of Tehran and Qom مكتب تهران و قم
• The School of Khorasan مكتب خراسان
• Mulla Hadi Sabzevari and the school of Nishapur ملاهادى سبزوارى و مكتب نيشابور

Modern Islamic philosophy

The tradition of Islamic philosophy is still very much alive. They abruptly stopped after Mulla Sadra and not of Suhrawardi. Mulla Sadras doctrine is called Hikmat -e- Mota'aliye or " transcendent theosophy ", Hikmat al - Ishraq Suhrawardis doctrine or " illuminalistische philosophy." Another unavoidable name of modern Islamic philosophy is Allama Muhammad Iqbal, the revived and redesigned the concept of Islamic philosophy among the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. In addition to his poetic works in Urdu and Persian is considered his book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam as a milestone of modern political philosophy of Islam.

In contemporary Islamic countries the teaching of Hikmat lives or hikmah out continues and thrives.

Among the traditional masters of Islamic philosophy that were active mainly in the past two decades, may be mentioned in particular: علامه طباطبائى or Allameh Tabatabaei, the author of numerous books including the siebenundzwanzigbändigen Quranic commentary al - Mizan ( الميزان ); Sayyid Abul- Hasan Qazwini Rafi'i ( سيد ابوالحسن رفيعى قزوينى ), the great master of Mulla Sadra - school who has indeed written a few essays, but outstanding students taught as Sayyid Jalal- al -Din Aschtiyani ( جلال الدين آشتيانى ), who studied both with him as Allameh Tabatabaei and Allamah Muhammad Salih Ha'iri Simnanin, the loyal supporters of the Peripatetic philosophy and opponent of Mulla Sadra - school.

As a younger traditional scholars who were active in the Islamic philosophy in recent times, are worth mentioning: Mirza Mahdi Ha'iri, the only traditional class of Hakim with a thorough knowledge of the West and author of Ilm -I Kulli and Kavoshha -ye Aqli - Nazari; Murtaza Motahhari, the best student of Allamah Tabatabai and martyrs of the Islamic Revolution in Iran; and Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

In addition to name are here:

• Haji Agus Salim
• Al- Ibrahimi Mohammed Al- Bachir
• Abdelwahab Bouhdiba
• Tariq Ramadan
• Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid

Special topics

Philosophical Reason and ( Islamic ) religion

As in other religious traditions, is also influenced by Islam for the philosophers, the question of how to reconcile with religious traditions and beliefs and reflect on teaching and let concepts of philosophical traditions. Between the extreme positions, flatly reject Philosophiezeption using them at best as a means of defense, but not for substantive reflection on the one hand or the other, to keep any revealed religion or Islam for philosophical reasons for wrong, there are different emphases in attempts a synthesis or a unilateral to develop or mutual transformation of philosophy and religion. Positions, only accept what religious truths, though there is sufficient philosophical reasons, or at least positions which attach the final judgment in doubt, philosophy, often called " rationalism ". Among the individual questions of the philosophy of religion in the context of Islam are largely issues as they are discussed in the two other major revealed religions, Judaism and Christianity, and how to greater extent in the scholastic theology ( kalam ) were discussed, including the following:

• What is the nature of God? Can one, for example, Essential attributes of God and know what? How does God's character and His acts to our essence and being? Can we know whether God exists? By which methods? (See Natural Theology)
• What is the nature of revelation ( and prophecy )? Does Revelation, for example, the knowledge of certain philosophically debatable sentences? Is it possible that God reveals himself? Can we know whether divine revelation actually happening or has happened? What is the status of the Qur'an - it is, for example, created or uncreated?
• If philosophical - or scientific - justifiable propositions can not be obviously agree with theses which can be found in authoritative religious texts, then how to proceed? Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted literally, which allegorically? Can some of them be wrong?
• What is the nature of religious belief? Is it, for example, while to the assent to certain philosophically beurteilbarer sentences? Which beliefs that are necessary to believe in order to be considered as followers of a particular religion?

Literature (selection )

• Peter Adamson, Richard C. Taylor (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. University Press, Cambridge, 2005, ISBN 0-521-52069- X. ( Publisher's website )
• Henry Corbin: History of Islamic Philosophy. Kegan Paul, London 1996, ISBN 0-7103-0416-1.
• Friedrich Dieterici: On the relation of Greek and Arabic philosophy. Avicenna edition, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-9809384-2-5.
• Majid Fakhry: A history of Islamic philosophy. ( Studies in Oriental culture, Vol 5). 3rd edition. Columbia University Press, New York 2004, ISBN 0-231-13221-2 (excerpts).
• Geert Hendrich: Arabic - Islamic philosophy. Past and present. 2nd edition. Campus -Verlag, Frankfurt / M. 2011, ISBN 978-3-593-39402-2.
• Wolfgang Günter Lerch: thinkers of the Prophet. The philosophy of Islam. Piper, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-492-23412-7.
• Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman (ed.): History of Islamic Philosophy. ( Routledge History of World Philosophies 5/1). Routledge, London 2003, ISBN 0-415-05667-5 (3 vols Nachdr d ed London 1996).
• Ulrich Rudolph: Islamic philosophy. From the beginnings to the present. 2nd edition. Beck, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-50852-9.
• Gotthard Strohmaier: Thinker in the Empire of the Caliphs. Pahl - Rugenstein Verlag, Cologne 1979, ISBN 3-7609-0447-5.

• Gerhard Endress: The Arab- Islamic philosophy of the Middle Ages, a research report. In: Journal for the History of Arabic-Islamic sciences. ( ZGAW ). Vol 5 (1989), ISSN 0179-4639, pp. 1-47.
• Gerhard Endress: Philosophy. In: Wolf Dietrich Fischer ( ed.): ground plan of Arabic philology. Vol 3: Supplement. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden 1992, ISBN 3-88226-214-1, pp. 25-61.
• Gerhard Endress: The scientific literature. In: Helmut Gätje (ed.): ground plan of Arabic philology. Vol 2: Literature. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1987, ISBN 3-88226-145-5, pp. 400-506.
• Michael Marmura: The Islamic philosophy of the Middle Ages. In: William M. Watt, Michael Marmura (ed.): Political Developments and theological concepts. ( Islam, Vol 2). Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1985, ISBN 3-17-005707-3, pp. 320-392.