Linguistic universal

(Linguistic) universals are properties that are all natural languages ​​in common, including statements about such properties. These properties are the basis for explanations about the origin and spread of the language. It can be universal certain simple properties of languages, a major role plays in linguistics but the finding of implicative universals of the form: " If a language has property A, then (via random times ) and property B " (where property but A does not is universal ).

Causes of universals

In universals can distinguish whether a statement about the properties of the languages ​​themselves is hit ( substantial universals ) or whether it is a statement ( ie, a grammar in the broadest sense ) must apply for each correct linguistic description system (formal universals ). The former are the universals in the proper sense.

Their own universals are also proposed for the language change and language acquisition.

Types of universals and their problems

Generalizations

Many of the proposed universals, provided that they ( " For each language, that she has the X property " that is, statements of the type ) has the form of generalizations assume either controversial or turn out on closer inspection to be trivial, or circular. The latter is especially the case when features that are already included in the definition of language, are recognized as universals: " All languages ​​consist of units with a symbolic character. " But the symbolism is already one of the essential definition of a word, and only what words, language would be called. It therefore follows from the definition of words and languages ​​, that all languages ​​of symbols. The same applies to the statement, " The complexity of a natural language is limited by their learnability ". This statement applies only to "natural languages ​​", ie those languages ​​that are actually learned and spoken by people. "Can be languages ​​that are learned and used, have learned. ": As a result, means no more than the set

An example of a controversial Universal is the sentence " All languages ​​consist at least of verbs and nouns ." It strongly depends on the definition of verbs and nouns, if this statement is true for certain critical in this respect languages. If one considers that the parts of speech in these languages ​​are classified as verbs or nouns, and selects a correspondingly broad definition, the validity of this universal by itself results If you choose, however, a narrow definition, the universal validity of this theorem can be not have.

Some generalizations that can be considered most likely as generally recognized, are examples listed below.

Implications

Less problematic than generalizations are Implikationsbeziehungen the form " If a language has a dual, then a plural". There are a number of relatively uncontroversial statements of this type. Implications are weaker than the universals generalizations, since they only make statements about a subset of all languages ​​, namely those languages ​​for which the if- condition is satisfied.

From a chain of such implications often results in hierarchies of implications. So not only applies "If a language has a trial, then a plural", it can just as well conclude that if they have a trial, also has a dual. Based on the number, therefore the following Implikationshierarchie can form: singular > Dual > Trial ( Paukal ) > Quadral. In other words: If a language a certain number, then it has also all lower hierarchy Numbers. Other Implikationshierarchien refer for example to the so-called " liveliness " of actants ( in about 1st & 2nd person > 3rd person. > People > creatures > inanimate objects ) or on their semantic role.

Statistical statements

Universals, which require only limited validity, the statistical statements ( " With few exceptions, all languages ​​have voiced and unvoiced plosives "). They are the weakest universals, but nevertheless convey an impression of the laws, which language is subject in itself. Statements of this type universals are formed by the comparative analysis of many languages ​​- conclusions regarding the conditions in a particular language are not usually possible, that is, with this kind of universals can be described conditions and tendencies that are common to all languages. A statement like " The word order object verb subject is extremely unusual and rare" is so in spite of their seemingly trivial content useful because it can serve as a guide for hypotheses about the function of different word order patterns.

Other examples of putative universals

• Languages ​​are not inherited, but learned.
• Languages ​​are constantly changing.
• Every human community has a language.
• Only the people have a language.
• All languages ​​have at least two vowels.
• All Phonemsysteme can be described using a small number of universal distinctive features.
• All languages ​​have an intonation system.
• All languages ​​have elements that have no inherent meaning ( function words, such as articles ).
• All languages ​​have elements with deiktischem character (eg, demonstrative pronouns ).
• All languages ​​have proper names.
• Every language with future tense also has a past tense, but not vice versa.
• The total number of sounds actually used in a natural language is limited and their number is less than the number of possible in principle (ie phonetically clearly reproducible and perceived as different) sounds.
• There are preferences, that is, significantly different frequencies of principle possible word orders.

Universals

In the study of linguistic universals in this case scientists are studying the grammar of a variety of different languages ​​in order to derive abstract generalizations, often in the form " If X is true, then Y happens " ( implicative universals ).

As a pioneer of universals applies Joseph Greenberg.