Map

A map is a digital or analog medium to represent the earth's surface or other celestial body. She is a registered ebnetes, scaled and generalized, provided with descriptions and character image of the surface of the earth or other celestial body. There are two main types of maps: topographic maps ( maps, moon maps ... ) and thematic maps.

In these spatial objects, events or processes are to scale generalized and represented using a sign system graphically in their spatial relationships. In the broadest sense illustrates an abstract map, spatial data and only difficult to formulate spatial relationships with the aim to make them easily understood by the viewer.

Representation spaces of a map are mainly the Earth and the continents. However, other celestial bodies, the stars or fictional worlds may be the subject of a map display. The science and technology to represent the earth surface in topographic and thematic maps, the cartography.

Traditionally, a map is printed on paper, with their thematic layers (Layers ) such as terrain, rivers, roads, forests, etc. are applied in multi-color printing. Today, the layer will no longer be archived as print films, but in a database (see geographic information system ) are stored. The map can then be presented on a screen and updated easily. A digital map also allows the inclusion of other, for example, visual and acoustic media and interactive communication with the user.

• 4.1 Famous cards

• 5.1 Historical methods 5.1.1 woodcut
• 5.1.2 Copper engraving
• 5.1.3 Steel engraving
• 5.1.4 lithography
• 5.1.5 Typographical production
• 5.1.6 engraving

• 5.2.1 Computer-based production
• 5.2.2 Preparation of real 3D lenticular cards in

The cartographic process

The map is the result of a complex workflow. At its beginning recognized or provided data related to spatial reference, so-called basic data or spatial data. They represent the displayed

• Space phenomena such as terrain or terrain points, depths, coastlines, water bodies, roads, human settlements,
• Or spatial properties ( facts ) such as soil types and land use, vegetation, rainfall and water levels, climate data, population density, local economic data, etc.

These primary data are collected by surveying the earth's surface ( site plan, aerial photos, etc. ) or by special measurements, surveys or censuses. This data is converted using graphic design and guidelines for generalization ( legend to plan and map drawing, pattern sheets, etc. ) manually or with the help of data models and program systems in cartographic objects or displayable secondary data, which in turn in scale arranged cartographic signs ( signatures, boundary lines, color codes, etc.) are transferred. In the presentation layer (paper, card, screen) represent and illustrate these points, characters, lines and areas, the imaged space phenomena.

Card Types

Maps can be classified according to various criteria, for example by

They allow a distinction between analog card and digital maps. Analog cards are called " classic maps" on an original character carriers ( copper plate engraving glass, engraving foil ) and is usually printed on paper or other suitable indicia carrier. Digital maps are stored in raster format or vector format electronically on a disk and can be output using electronic equipment in various forms, such as on a pressure plate in the " computer to plate " method, on a screen or on the display of a navigation system or a mobile phone.

Since cards over the real world generally at a scale ratio ( " scale " ) are available, one can classify cards even after their scale. One speaks of a large scale when the scale denominator is small, on the other hand of a small scale, if the scale denominator is large. In topographic maps are called maps to a scale of 1:10,000 as großmaßstäbig or as a topographic base maps, those with a scale of 1:25,000 to 1:100,000 as mittelmaßstäbig. Topographic maps are smaller than kleinmaßstäbig or called topographic overview map with a scale of 1:200,000 or.

From cards is always invoked if their scale forces a generalization. Have phenomena of the real world almost ungeneralisiert and then usually großmaßstäbig represent, one speaks of plans (site plan, building plan ).

The main theme of the represented space phenomena is a common differentiator for cards. In a first approximation, one has distinguished as topographic maps of thematic maps. A more differentiated approach speaks instead of topographic maps of maps and also allows for the thematic maps further distinctions, such as in aviation charts, maps, geoscientific maps, economic maps, political maps, historical ( historiographical ) cards. ( The term historical map is not unique, as it is colloquially used for obsolete, outdated maps. )

The representation space of a map is a further distinguishing criterion. There are, for example, World Maps, Europe Maps, Germany Maps, state maps, city maps (also called " maps "), and sky maps, moon maps, Mars maps, etc.

Of particular aesthetics are panoramic maps which represent a winter or summer panorama of an area. In the first case they are used mostly for plastic representation of ski runs, in the second of hiking trails. As special representative of these cards art became Henry C. Berann world fame, who combined modern cartography with classical painting.

After the specified degree of compliance of map content and the real world can be between current map and outdated cards (" old maps " ) are different. The term historical map is the historiographical map reserved and should not be used for old maps.

They allow a distinction of cards, such as car ( driver ) cards, wheel ( driver ) cards, maps, navigational charts, school maps, etc. This category also includes dummy cards that are designed as tactile maps.

According to the editor of a card is distinguished in official maps and maps of the commercial Verlagskartografie. Official cards are issued by a public institution in a public task. They serve the public interest and safety and are often based on a law or a regulation. Published by the Verlagskartografie cards are intended for the market and contact the consumer (in tourism, leisure and hiking maps sector meets this distinction is not always, as many land surveying authorities to issue such specific for the market cards). Furthermore, there are a variety of scientific special cards that are produced by universities and other scientific institutions in the context of research and found a mostly limited group of users.

Build a card

A printed or presented on-screen map is composed of several elements that are inherently different in the two types of cards.

Printed map

While the digital map stored basically leaf cut free and is free sheet lines represented by " scrolling " on the screen, it is in the printed map always to a limited piece of card. In order to cover a larger area, such as a whole country, is used to produce several map sheets that have either such a sheet cut to fit seamlessly together or overlap at the edges. Multiple map sheets that have the same geodetic bases, the same projection, the same scale, the same leaf section and the same signatures and design system, form a map series. Official topographic maps to form the country's maps.

A printed map is usually out of the card box, card frame and the edge of the map.

Map Field

In the card box (even map image maps mirror, mirror sheet ) is the actual card, the card content is reproduced. This is set in a character rule, a pattern sheet or a signature catalog. Extracts from it are given in the legend (legend ), the most in the margin, sometimes located in a blank field the map.

Many maps of the Middle Ages are divided in to the card field for example, has the shape of a wheel ( cycle map; " TO- card"), a heart ( Oronce Fine, Paris 1536) or a cloverleaf (World map of Heinrich Bunting 1581).

Card frame

The card frame is limited depending on the picture style square, rectangular or trapezoidal sheet section of the map. It contains in particular the Bezifferungen of the underlying map coordinate system, but also evidence for the continuation of the cut through the sheet cut signatures.

Card Edge

The edge of the card is used to hold cards technical, editorial, copyright and distribution of technical explanations and information to the editor. Here you will find the name or designation of the card, the card works and the map sheet. The scale ratio ( " scale " ) is numerically (eg 1: 25,000 ), often graphically indicated using a scale bar. In the legend (legend ) the main character maps are compiled using friendly. Furthermore, the name of the publisher, information can edition number and year of publication (eg, 6th edition, 1996), for topicality stand and copyright notices, and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN ) to be housed in the edge of the map.

Ready-made cards, especially those published by commercial publishers, national usually have a fitted with an attractive title card envelope, which can then also fulfill the functions of the card edge.

Sheet cut

If a larger area is to be charted, which does not take place on a piece of card, this is split into multiple sheets. To a regular grid is often used. This may coincide with the grid of geographic coordinates or the coordinate system of the map image in the plane. It is called a leaf section.

Same as the blade cut with integer meridians and parallels, one also speaks of grade division cards.

Screen map

The on screen (display) map shown ( " map screen ") is the presentation of a on a storage medium (CD, DVD, hard disk) stored or downloaded from the Internet digital map. Their structure is usually not in the card itself visible, but hidden in the software and map data.

An essential feature of the video card is that they are usually of the user or dialogues and interactions with his actions permitting, for example, increase or decrease of the map image, scale change, and hiding of map themes, distance measurements, profile sections, positioning your own maps characters queries. This usually takes over the controls of a graphical user interface.

History

Main article: History of cartography

From the mid 19th century topographic maps were printed. First recordings were made in Germany in 1855. Since the 1970s, the storage of card information has increased on electronic media.

Famous cards

• Geographike Hyphegesis - first world map with coordinate system to 150 AD
• World Map of Andrew Walsperger
• Ebstorfer World Map
• Map of Piri Reis
• Tabula Peutingeriana
• Vinland Map
• Dufour map

Card production

Historical method

The first cards were carved into clay tablets or animal bones. Later, you could draw on papyrus or parchment, but a duplication was a tedious job. Until the invention of printing technology in the 15th century were higher quantities are produced. From the map a template was created depending on the technique, which was then reproduced in the printing process. Through improved methods finer elements could always be added to the card and used multi-color printing.

Woodcut

The woodcut, still used at the beginning of cartography often been displaced almost entirely. Woodcuts and engravings date back to the last quarter of the 15th century.

Copper engraving

The engraving supplies in terms of sharpness and depth of the stroke as well as softness and delicacy of execution, the most beautiful cards; supported by electrically generated auxiliary plates, and in any quantity. Corrections are not difficult to do, especially on the high boards, but they require time and costs.

Steel engraving

The steel engraving, introduced 1820, is suitable for very large runs of the mother board, but was developed in conjunction with electroforming since copper engraving, rarely used because of the difficulty of the plate corrections.

Lithography

Lithography ( lithography ) dates from the beginning of the 19th century. In conjunction with the stone pressure it allows using quick press an inexpensive production in color.

In the 19th century, lithography has in connection with the printing press achieved brilliant successes by lithographically engraved maps for use in the printing press by pressure on zinc ( Chemigrafie or Zinkografie ) be turned into letterpress plates. In this type of reproduction colored print can be used, but the method is only for very large runs of advantage, as more detailed corrections always make a renewal of plates required.

Card imprints of any kind can also be reproduced by the anastatic method, but it is rarely used, since one obtained with the help of photography in technical relationship far more favorable results. For by photolithography and heliography original drawings can be transferred directly on stone or copper, and also reduced or enlarged.

Typographic production

The typographic production (that is, the printing press with movable type ) of maps was already repeatedly tried ( 1478, 1777, 1839, 1862), but each time abandoned.

Engraving

Until the 1990s, the Gravierutensilien, the light table and the ink pen tool were regarded as the cartographer. So that he could engrave on the individual films or glass plates and retouch that were needed for the production of printing plates.

Modern reproductive techniques

Computer-based production

The progressive development of computer technology then enabled the transition from analogue to digital map production. Initially graphics programs have been used (eg Freehand Macromedia ) to a large degree. In the course of development and cartographic special programs (eg OCAD or Themak of GraS ) and complete solutions (eg LorikSoftware of Lorienne SA) came on the market. Today, most of the cards with the help of geographic information systems ( such as ArcGIS ) on the basis of spatial base data (eg ATKIS ) and other spatial information are made. The geodesy and remote sensing provide the data, which are then implemented by the cartographers in cards.

Production of real 3D lenticular cards in

Lenticular is a method of multi- screen visualization, also known as " lenticular " or " lenticular image ".

With this technique is possible to produce real 3D map. The viewer can recognize as height ratios, slope angle and relief forms. This is made possible by the use of so-called Lentikularabbildungen and films.

• Lentikularabbildungen consist of images, which is based on a design that consists of two different angles ( stereoscopic) was added. These images are decomposed into fine strips and alternately arranged in parallel ( interlacing).
• Lenticular sheets are transparent plastic sheets on top of which are parallel and vertical ( for 3D images ) running, tunnel-shaped microlenses. For a real 3D card in the format of 60 × 45 cm, a lenticular lens is used with a density of 70 lenses per inch.

Pictures and film are adhered or printed to both the image strips and the tunnel-shaped microlenses are vertical. So the " lenticular " effect and, depending on the viewing angle, different images are perceived arises. Thus, three-dimensional vision is possible. Additional stereoscopic viewing aids are therefore no longer necessary.

To reinforce the impression of space, come in real 3D maps, a relief impression and a factor added to the elevation of the terrain. The labels hover above the relief.

Lenticular images can be presented as an analog print products or digital means of autostereoscopic displays ( known as 3D monitors).

Real - 3D - cards are also recommended for the general education classroom, especially since they can serve the viewer the third dimension of the earth's surface as a virtual model without technical aid to vision.

Card usage

Cards are used for spatial orientation and navigation on land, at sea and in the air. Furthermore, they are used for planning. It can be with them distances, angles or surfaces measure or estimate. As an aid can serve compass, divider line, planimeter, curvimeter or ruler.

If the map for close comparison with nature or to determine the user position are, you have to orient them before use to the north. This is usually done by comparing with the last stretch back down, according to the Sun or by targeting with 1-2 distant map points ( peaks, villages, roads or railway lines).

Each card has a larger area certain distortions. Because it is a flat image of the curved earth surface, it can not be both equal area, length and angle preserving true - just a globe makes such a lifelike representation of the geometric relationships, but perforce in a very small scale. An appropriate card network design must be used or the distortion are taken into account by calculation or graphically for all other applications.

Manipulation of cards

The card as a means of representation offers various possibilities for manipulation to censorship with the aim to highlight certain aspects to suppress or intentionally play wrong. Causes can be:

• National security ( protection of strategically important facilities, such as military equipment, transmission equipment, power plants, and railways, roads, industrial plants, fords, altitude )
• Political Propaganda ( international boundary disputes, reduction of political opponents by misrepresentation of the relative sizes of the countries, suggestive choice of card symbols and colors)
• Advertising (eg one-sided judgmental representation of transport links )
• Enforcement of interests ( implementation of controversial construction projects and their prevention )

When considering and using a card that is a degree of skepticism is always appropriate, especially when it was created recognizable to pursue a particular goal.

Others

• It was not until the modern era, there is the convention that - a map is oriented to north - in the absence of anything to the contrary. Until the late Middle Ages, especially in charts, the orientation in the original sense of the word common, that is, the alignment to the east. The also had religious reasons, as viewed from the West of Jerusalem, which was seen as a center of Christianity, lies in the east and should appear on each card above. An example of this is the Ebstorfer world map.
• The representation of the continents in world maps is different in certain countries, as some countries in America or Asia represent their continent in the center ( see illustrations). This involves the prevention of Eurocentrism. In the world map used in Europe and Africa, it is common that Europe is shown in the center.
• If a country does not ( as in reality often the case ) is distributed to several non- adjacent areas, can be a political map with four colors to color so that adjacent countries have different colors, see also four- color theorem.
• For special applications, there are cards in which these requirements are considered, such as hiking maps, hiking maps, charts and current maps.
• For the copy or disinformation fictional streets (trap Streets ) are incorporated into maps, or falsified other details.