Medieval Greek

Formerly spoken in

Indo- European

• Greek means

-

Grc (historical Greek language until 1453 )

Grc (historical Greek language until 1453 )

Sub-average Greek is commonly understood language level of the Greek between the beginning of the Middle Ages around 600 and the conquest of the city of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453 Opel since this date usually the end of the Middle Ages for South Eastern Europe is defined. Greek was the 7th century the sole administrative and official language of the Byzantine Empire, the former language level is therefore also known as Byzantine Greek; in English and Modern Greek Medieval Greek, the term is used.

The beginning of this language level is occasionally been dated to the 4th century, either at the time of the transfer of the imperial main residence to Constantinople Opel in 330 or the division of the kingdom of 395, but is this approach less from the cultural- linguistic, but rather by political developments and is therefore quite arbitrary. It was only in the 7th century the Eastern Roman - Byzantine culture was subject to such massive changes that it makes sense to speak of a turning point. The Medieval Greek is the link between the ancient and the modern form of language, because on the one hand its literature is still strongly influenced by ancient Greek and on the other hand were able to simultaneously develop in the spoken language, almost all characteristics of modern Greek.

The exploration of the medium Greek language and literature is a branch of the Byzantine or Byzantinologie, the comprehensive and interdisciplinary interest in history and culture of the Byzantine world.

• 3.1 vowels
• 3.2 consonants

• 5.1 Inner Linguistic innovations
• 5.2 loanwords from other languages

• 6.1 uncial and cursive
• 6.2 minuscule script

• 7.1 Attizistische Koine
• 7.2 vernacular

History and distribution

• Spread under the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632
• Spread among the four " Rightly Guided Caliphs ", 632-661
• Spread under the Umayyads, 661-750

With the establishment of a second Roman imperial court in Constantinople Opel in the 4th century, the political center of the Roman Empire moved into a Greek-speaking environment, especially after the de facto division of the Empire of 395 Latin remained in Ostrom the language, both the court and the army as well as official documents, however, began to wane from the 5th century. However, at that time invaded numerous Latin loan words into Greek one. From the middle of the 6th century re-enactment that were mostly written in Greek, and gradually translated parts of the Corpus Juris Civilis Latin into Greek. Under Emperor Heraclius ( 610-641 ), the 629 and the Greek rulers title βασιλεύς ( basileus ) assumed, Greek was finally the official state language of the Eastern Empire, which is still long after the demise of the Western Roman Empire as Ῥωμανία ( Romania), its inhabitants as Ῥωμαῖοι ( Rhomaioi, ie " Romans " ) designated.

The number of Greek speakers is estimated at 600 to just over a third of the Eastern Roman population, ie about ten to fifteen million people, the core area of the language in the ancient settlements of the Greeks, especially the southern Balkan Peninsula and in the western part of Asia Minor was. The number of those who knew how to communicate in Greek, but is likely to have been far greater. Also the Eastern Roman cities were characterized to be strong in Greek. In many parts of the Eastern Roman Orient the vernacular Syriac, however, was ( Aramaic ).

The south and east of the empire was then 603-619 occupied by the Persian Sassanids and after its reconquest by Heraclius ( 628) conquered a few years later in the wake of the Islamic expansion by the Arabs. Alexandria, a center of Hellenistic culture and language, 642 fell to the Arabs. 693 was replaced Greek as the official language by the Arabian in the conquered territories. Thus, the Greek was heavily pushed back in the early Middle Ages in these areas.

The remaining core regions of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, Asia Minor and Hellas were, at the same time the most Greek influenced territories. However different the Greek vernacular, which had emerged from the Koine, strongly influenced by the language of the educated, which held artificially in many forms of ancient Greek. One speaks here of a diglossia ( see below).

In the sparsely populated inland Anatolia invaded from the late 11th century with the Seljuk Turkic people, the then west penetrated against the Greek -speaking world. With the conquest of Constantinople ( 1453), Athens ( 1456 ), the Peloponnese ( 1459/60 ) and the Empire of Trebizond ( 1461 ) by the Ottomans ended the status of Greek as the official language until the emergence of modern Greece in 1832. Language forms after 1453 is referred to as modern Greek.

Language forms

The surviving texts in Greek language medium are far less extensive and diverse than those from ancient Greek times. Especially the vernacular Greek means is occupied in longer texts until the 12th century: The vernacular language was frowned upon under Byzantine scholars such that vernacular texts were even destroyed.

Linguistic duality

Already in the Hellenistic period began the diglossia of the Attic literary language and the constantly evolving spoken vernacular. After the end of late antiquity, this gap was evident. The still shaped by medieval Attic Koine (, common language '), which remained the literary language of the Middle Greek for centuries, preserved a no longer spoken stage of Greek.

The resulting literature in the Attic literary language focused largely on the extensive run history ( chronicles, as well as classical, contemporary historical works ), theological writings and recording legends of the saints. Poetry can be found in the hymns and ecclesiastical poetry. Quite a few of the Byzantine emperors were themselves active as a writer and wrote chronicles or works to the Byzantine statecraft, strategic or philological writings. Furthermore, there are letters, legal texts and various directories and listings in Central Greek.

Concessions to the spoken Greek can be found variously in the literature: John Malalas ' chronology from the 6th century, the chronicle of Theophanes (9th century ) and the works of Constantine Porphyrogenitus ' ( mid 10th century) sit in word choice and grammar to the respective vernacular of their time, but do not use everyday language, but follow in morphology and syntax largely handed down from ancient Greek Koine.

The form of language spoken was with terms such as glossa DIMODIS ( δημώδης γλῶσσα, vernacular '), aploelliniki ( ἁπλοελληνική, simple Greek' ), kathomilimeni ( καθωμιλημένη, spoken ') or Romaiiki ( Ῥωμαϊική, Roman [ language ]') respectively. Examples of purely vernacular texts have survived extremely sparse from the period before 1200. They are limited to quoted satirical verses, proverbs and occasionally squat in the literature particularly common or untranslatable formulations. From the end of the 11th century vulgar Greek poems from literary circles of Constantinople are occupied.

Only with the Digenis Akritas, a collection of heroic songs of the 12th century, which were later assembled into a verse epic, there is a completely Worded in the vernacular literary work. As a reaction to the Renaissance of the Attic under the dynasty of Komnenen in works like Psellos ' chronology ( mid 11th century), or about a century later incurred Alexiade, the biography of the Emperor Alexios I by his daughter Anna Comnena, came from the 12th century about the same time as the French romance of chivalry the vulgar Greek Versepik to light. She treated in a fünfzehnsilbigen blank verse ( versus politicus ) ancient and medieval epics, but also plant and animal stories. Singular is also written in verse in the 14th century Chronicle of the Morea, which is narrated in French, Italian and Aragonese language and the history of the French feudal lords in the Peloponnese describes.

The earliest evidence of vulgar Greek prose - exist in some written in lower Italy documents of the 10th century. The later prose literature consists of chapbooks, collections of laws, chronicles, and paraphrases religious, historical and medical works. The dualism of literary and vernacular should hold on until well into the 20th century, before the Greek language question in 1976 was decided in favor of the vernacular.

Dialects

It is noteworthy that, despite their wide distribution in the eastern Mediterranean, the Greek vernacular not split like the Vulgar Latin in many new languages ​​, but a relatively uniform language area remained. An exception is the Greek on the south coast of the Black Sea, the Pontic language that has not mitvollzogen many developments in the medium- Greek vernacular. Dialects based on the Koine formed out about after the turn of the millennium. Dialect forms of older origin have survived in the southern Italian enclaves of Griko and Tsakonischen on the Peloponnese to this day. Some of the younger dialects as the Cappadocian went with the resettlement of the speakers at today's Greece after 1923, the Cypriot Greek is not as literary form of language to this day.

Phonetics and phonology

It is believed that most developments of modern Greek phonology in Greek means were already completed or completed during this stage voice. These mainly include the already established dynamic accent, who had already replaced the Hellenistic period to the ancient Greek tonal system, which is gradually reduced to five phonemes vowel system without distinction of vowel length and the Monophthongisierung the Ancient Greek diphthongs.

Vowels

The Suda, a lexicon from the end of the 10th century, are with their antistoicheischen order, alphabetically lists the terms, but pronounced the same letters next to each other classifies, information on the volume level of the vowels. Thus, each αι and ε, ει, η and ι, ο and ω υ and οι and filed together, were so homophonic.

Until about the 10-11. Century, υ, οι and υι [y ] pronounced and were then to [ i]. In the diphthongs αυ, ευ and ηυ the second component developed early on [ u] probably via [ β ] and [ ɸ ] to [v ] or [ f]. Before [n ] which was to υ [m ] ( Eunostos / εὔνοστος > émnostos / ἔμνοστος, cháunos / χαύνος > chamnos / χάμνος, eláuno / ἐλαύνω > LaMnO / λάμνω ) or fell away ( thauma / θαῦμα > ThaMa / θάμα ), before [s ] it was occasionally [ p] ( anápausi / ἀνάπαυση > anápapsi / ἀνάπαψη ).

The aphaeresis (, omission ' of Anlautvokalen ) has led to some new word formations out: i IMERA ( ἡ ἡμέρα ) > i Méra ( ἡ μέρα ), the day ', Eroto ( ἐρωτῶ ) > Roto ( ρωτῶ ask '.

A regular phenomenon is that of Synizesis (' Summary ' of vowels ). Many words with the combinations / éa /, / éo /, / ía /, / io / the emphasis shifted to the second vowel, and the first was a habvokalisches [j ]: Romeos ( Ῥωμαῖος ) > ROMIOS ( Ῥωμιός ) Romans ', Ennea ( ἐννέα ) > Ennia ( ἐννιά ), nine ', PIOs ( ποῖος > PIOs ( ποιός ) - what a for what ' ta pedia ( τα παιδία ) > ta pedia ( τα παιδιά ), the children '. too often dwindled the vowel ο from the endings -ion/-ιον and -ios/-ιος ( sakkíon / σακκίον > sakkín / σακκίν, chartíon / χαρτίον > chartin / χαρτίν, Kyrios / κύριος > kýris / κύρις ).

Consonants

¹ [ ŋ ] is a variant of the phoneme / n /. ² [ β ] and [ ɸ ] are precursors to [v ] and [f ]. ³ [ ç ] and [ x] are allophones of a phoneme. ⁴ [j ] and [ γ ] are allophones of a phoneme.

Already in the late antiquity of the change in the consonant system of the voiced and aspirated voiceless Plosiva Plosiva was completed to fricatives. The velar sounds [k ʰ ] and [ g] were split into two variants, a palatal before front and a velar before [a] and back vowels. The aspirate [h ], which was not written in Attic and had dwindled in most other dialects in antiquity (, Hauchpsilose '), was in the 9th century, as the alcohol asper was binding to its label, long since gone off completely.

Changes in the phonological system relate primarily consonant combinations, the Sandhi phenomena show: When combined with two plosives or fricatives tends to be a combination of both [ k] and [p] are against [ t] [ x] and [f ] ( nýkta / νύκτα > nýchta / νύχτα, EPTA / ἑπτά > EFTA / ἑφτά ), [ θ ] is before [ f] and [x ] and after [ s] [t ] ( fthónos / φθόνος > ftónos / φτόνος, parefthýs / παρευθύς > pareftýs / παρευτύς, chthes / χθές > chtes / χτές ). The nasals [m ] and [ n] disappear sometimes before voiceless fricatives: ( Nymfi / νύμφη > Nyfi / νύφη, Anthos / ἄνθος > Áthos / ἄθος ).

About a similar appearance, the vocalization of the voiceless plosives after nasals, Greek later formed again from the voiced stops [ b], [ d ] and [ g]. When exactly was taking place, this development has not been established, it seems to have begun in Byzantine times, anyway. Already found in Byzantine sources in transcriptions from neighboring languages, the graphemes μπ, ντ and γκ for b, d, and g, such as in ντερβίσης ( dervísis for türk Derviş, Dervish ').

Grammar

The Greek took until about 1100 the decisive change from the old to the modern Greek - grammar and has changed only slightly since that time. What is striking is the absence of many inherited from the Indo-European grammatical categories, especially in the verb system as well as the tendency for increased analytical formations and periphrastic verb forms, in syntax to paratactic sentence structure compared to the often complex and nested structures of ancient Greek.

The development of the morphology in the central Greek began in late antiquity and are characterized by a tendency toward systematization and standardization of morphemes of declension, conjugation and comparation. Thus, in the nouns, the third, ungleichsilbige declination of ancient Greek was adapted by forming a new nominative from the oblique case forms of the regular 1st and 2nd declension: ho pater ( ὁ πατήρ ) ton patera ( τὸν πατέρα ) > o Pateras ( ὁ πατέρας ), accusative ton patéran ( τὸν πατέραν ). Female nouns ending in -ís/-ás formed the nominative according to the accusative -ída/-áda so Elpis ( ἐλπίς ) > Elpida ( ἐλπίδα, Hope ') and Ella ( Ἑλλάς ) > Elláda ( Ἑλλάδα, Greece '). From this simplification, only a few nouns were excluded, such as fos ( το φῶς ), genitive tou fotos ( τοῦ φωτός ).

The ancient Greek, partly irregular comparative formation of adjectives with the suffixes -ion and -one ( - ιον, - ων ) gradually gave way to the formation with the suffix - ter and regular adjective endings: Meizon ( μείζων ) > mizóteros ( μειζότερος, the larger ' ).

From the enclitic genitive form of the personal of the first and second or the demonstrative pronoun of the third person and analog developments, the unstressed tis arisen to the noun attached ( enclitic ) possessives mou ( μου ), sou ( σου ), tou ( του ) / ( της ), mas ( μας ), sas ( σας ), ton ( των ).

In addition to the particles na and Thena (see below) originated from the ancient Greek Ouden ( οὐδέν, nothing ') the negative particle to ( δέν, not ').

Also in the conjugation of verbs exceptions and rare forms were replaced by regular training by analogistische. Thus vanished the conjugation of verbs in -mi ( - μι ) in favor of regular forms in- o: chōnnymi ( χώννυμι ) > Chono ( χώνω, push '). The contracted verbs in -ao, - eo, etc. with some complicated mergers of Konjugationsendungen take analogous to the regular forms whose endings to: AGAPA ( ἀγαπᾷ ) > agapái ( ἀγαπάει, he loves '). The use of the augment gradually limited to regular, stressed forms, the replication of the strain was gradually no longer productive ( the perfect tense also formed periphrastically ) and was retained only in frozen forms.

The diversity of the ordinary variants of the Greek verbs fell on mostly two fixed strains for conjugation of different aspects, sometimes to a single. Thus, the stem of the verb appears lambánein ( λαμβάνειν, take ') in the ancient Greek in the variants lamb, lab, Leps, IEph and Lem and reduced the average Greek on the forms lamv and lav.

The auxiliary verb eimi ( εἰμί be '), for example, took on the liabilities regular endings, examples in the indicative singular:

Among the many geschwundenen forms include the dative, which was replaced by the genitive and prepositional construction with ice ( εἰς in to ') accusative in the 10th century, the dual, also almost all the participles and the imperative forms of the 3rd person. The optative was ἵνα by the construction of subordinate clauses with the conjunctions OTI ( ὅτι that ') and Ina ( ἵνα so ') was replaced Ina ( ἱνά ) at na ( να ). From the construction Thélo na ( θέλω να, I want that ... ') finally formed over spätbyzantinisch Thena ( θενά ) Modern Greek Futurpartikel tha ( θα ), which replaced the old Futurformen. Ancient formations such as the genitive absolutus, the AcI and almost all of the frequent participial avoided the use of the newly developed or gerund constructions with subordinate clauses.

The most striking change in the grammar against the ancient Greek is the almost total disappearance of the infinitive, which was replaced by subordinate clauses with the particle na ( να ). As an explanation for this phenomenon Arabic influences were suspected, since a formation as I can that I 'm already in the classical standard Arabic was common. The phenomenon is found, possibly mediated by the Greek, moreover, in the neighboring languages ​​and dialects in the Balkans, especially in the Bulgarian and Romanian, the typologically similar in many respects to the Central and Modern Greek, although they are not related genealogically closer to him are. By exploring this Balkan language Bunds the Balkanologie deals.

Vocabulary

Inner Linguistic innovations

Many Greek words have undergone a decisive change of meaning in the area of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Christian religion. Thus, the term displaced for the Eastern Roman citizens ( defined itself more on the membership to Orthodoxy than about his linguistic or ethnic affiliation ) ROMIOS ( Ῥωμιός, Romans ') the ancient expression bright ( Ἕλλην, Greek '), the only for the trailer the old Olympian religion and was used as a term for those nations '. It was only in the 15th century, scholars bethought back on the ethnic and especially linguistic and cultural continuity of the Greek world and used the term Hellenic again in this sense.

Christian influenced lexicographical changes in the central Greek can be found for example in the words Angelos ( ἄγγελος, messenger '>' heavenly '>' angel ') or Agápi ( ἀγάπη, Love '> ' charity ', in stricter demarcation to Eros ( ἔρως ), the, physical ' love).

In words of everyday use some ancient Greek tribes were replaced by others. Example of this is the term given to wine ", where the word krasíon ( κρασίον, about, mixture ') displaced the ancient Greek iNOS ( οἶνος ). From the word ὄψον Opson with the meaning, extras every ', what you eat bread ', developed over that of Latin- arium borrowed suffix - arion ( - αριον ) on the importance, fish ' ( opsarion, ὀψάριον ) obtained by apheresis and Synizesis about psárin to modern Greek psari ( ψάρι ) was the ancient Greek and ichthys ( ἰχθύς ) displaced, which had become as an acrostic for Jesus Christ, a Christian symbol.

Loan words from other languages

The center has adopted numerous loanwords from Greek Latin especially at the beginning of the Byzantine Empire, which mainly deals in securities and other criteria in the life of the imperial court as Αὔγουστος ( Avgoustos, Augustus '), πρίγκηψ ( prinkips, Latin princeps, Prince ' ), μάγιστρος ( magistros, Magister '), κοιαίστωρ ( kyéstor, Latin quaestor -, Quaestor '), ὀφφικιάλος ( offikiálos, lat officialis officially ').

Even everyday terms came from the Latin into Greek one, examples are ὁσπίτιον ( ospítion, lat hospitium, hostel ', it neugr. Spiti σπίτι, house' ) σέλλα ( sella, saddle '), ταβέρνα ( taverna taverna '), κανδήλιον ( kandílion, Latin candela, candle '), φούρνος ( Foúrnos, lat Furnus, oven ') and φλάσκα ( Fľaška, lat FLASCO, wine bottle ').

Other influences on the Greek means resulted from contact with neighboring languages ​​and the languages ​​of the Venetian, Frankish and Arab conquerors. Some of the loanwords from these languages ​​have kept permanently in Greek or in its dialects:

• Káltsa ( κάλτσα ) v. ital calza, sock '
• Dama ( ντάμα ) v. French lady, lady '
• Gouna ( γούνα ) v. slaw guna, fur '
• Louloudi ( λουλούδι ) v. alban. lule, flower '
• PAZARI ( παζάρι ) v. türk pazar (this from the Persian ), Market, Bazaar '
• Chatzi ( χατζι ) v. Arab. Pilgrimage Holiday, Mecca pilgrims ' as suffix for a Christian after Jerusalem pilgrimage

Font

The Middle Greek used the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet, which were mainly used until the end of antiquity as lapidary and majuscule and without spaces between words and diacritics.

Uncial and cursive

Minuscule script

From the 9th century, probably resulting from the italics in Syria Greek minuscule script, which uses the developed already in the 3rd century BC accents and the alcohol for the first time regularly appear more frequently with the introduction of the paper. This very fluid writing with over-and under lengths and many possible combinations of letters used as a first space between the words. As a final forms Iota were in the 12th century subscript and developed the final sigma ( ς ). After the Islamic conquest of Greece, the Greek font disappeared in the area of the eastern Mediterranean and was limited to use by the Gräzistik in Western and Central Europe. Developed in the 17th century by a book printer from the Antwerp printer Dynasty Wetstein type for capitals and lower case letters of the Greek was finally binding on the modern Greek letters.

Text sample

Attizistische Koine

Original text: Ὁ βασιλεὺς Ἀλέξιος καὶ ἐμὸς πατὴρ καὶ πρὸ τοῦ τῶν σκήπτρων ἐπειλῆφθαι τῆς βασιλείας μέγα ὄφελος τῇ βάσιλείᾳ Ῥωμαίων γεγένεται. Ἤρξατο μὲν γὰρ στρατεύειν ἐπὶ Ῥωμανοῦ τοῦ Διογένους.

IPA transcription: ɔ vasi'lɛfs a'lɛksjɔs kɛ ɛ'mɔs pa'tir kɛ prɔ tu tɔn ' skiptron ɛpi'lifθɛ tis vasi'lias ' mɛɣa ' ɔfɛlɔs ti vasi'lia rɔ'mɛɔn jɛ'jɛnɛtɛ. ' irksatɔ mɛn ɣar stra'tɛvin ɛp'i rɔma'nu tu ðiɔ'jɛnus

Translation: Before his attainment of the imperial scepter of the Emperor Alexius, who was my father, was the Roman Empire of great benefit. He began that is already under the Emperor Romanos Diogenes shaft of as a military leader.

Vernacular

Original text: Καὶ ὁ ἀμιρὰς ὡς τὸ ἤκουσεν, μακρέα τὸν ἀποξέβην, ἔριψεν τὸ κοντάριν του καὶ δάκτυλον τοῦ δείχνει καὶ μετὰ τοῦ δακτύλου του τοιοῦτον λόγον λέγει: « Νὰ ζῆς, καλὲ νεώτερε, ἐδικόν σου ἔναι τὸ νίκος. "

Voiced? / I

IPA transcription: kɛ ɔ ami'ras ɔs tɔ ' ikusɛn, ma'krɛa tɔn apɔ'ksɛvin ' ɛripsɛn tɔ kɔn'tarin tu kɛ ' ðaktilɔn tu ' ðixni kɛ mɛ'ta tu tu ðak'tilu ti'utɔn ' lɔɣɔn ' lɛji na zis, ka'lɛ nɛ'ɔtɛrɛ, ɛði'kɔn su ' ɛnɛ tɔ ' nikɔs

Translation: And when the Emir heard it, he pulled back a little, threw his spear away and showed him his finger and with this hint he spoke this word: "Thou shalt live, good youth, victory is yours."

Effect on other languages

The Middle Greek has found the language of the Orthodox Church, especially with the Slavic mission of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, in the religious sphere input in Slavic languages, especially in Old Church Slavonic and its successor varieties, the different Church Slavonic newsrooms, even in the languages ​​of the countries with an Orthodox population, ie mainly the Bulgarian, Russian, Ukrainian and Serbian. Therefore often correspond to Greek loan words and neologisms in these languages ​​the Byzantine phonology, while they have fallen into the languages ​​of Western Europe over Latin mediation in the sound shape of the classical Greek ( cf. German Automobil vs.. Автомобиль Russian awtomobil and the differences in Serbo-Croatian ).

Some German words, especially from the religious sector, have also been borrowed through the mediation of the Gothic from the Middle Greek, this includes church ( from κυριακὸς οἶκος, Kiriakos Ikos (, house of the Lord ') is a female short form Kiriki and Old High German chiricha ) or Pentecost ( from πεντηκοστή, pentikostí, the fiftieth [ day after Easter ] ').

Research

In the Byzantine Empire, such as medium - old Greek texts were copied many times, the study of these texts was part of the Byzantine education. Several copy Collections attempted to document the Greek literature from antiquity comprehensively. After the fall of the Eastern Empire came many scholars and a large number of manuscripts to Italy, with its scientists since the 14th century, a lively exchange had existed. The Italian and Greek humanists of the Renaissance laid important collections in Rome, Florence and Venice. The mediation of the Greek by Greek contemporaries also brought the tradition of Italian itazistische Gräzistik.

In the 16th century began in Western and Central Europe by providing scholars who had studied at Italian universities, the gräzistische tradition, the Byzantine works with included which mainly classical philology, history and theology, but not medium- Greek Language and Literature was the main subject of the research. As a 'father' of the German Byzantine applies Hieronymus Wolf ( 1516-1580 ). In France, Charles Dufresne You Cange (1610-1688) the first significant Byzantinist. In the 18th century the interest in research byzantinistischen subsided significantly - the Enlightenment saw in Byzantium primarily the decadent, setting culture of the end of the empire.

Took until the 19th century, not least inspired by the philhellenism, publication and research medium Greek sources increasing rapidly. Also first vernacular texts were edited. Gradually the Byzantinologie of classical philology began to loosen and become an independent field of research. The Bavarian scientist Karl Krumbacher (1856-1909), who is also now established State of Greece was able to do research, is considered the founder of the middle and modern Greek philology. He served from 1897 a professorship in Munich. Also founded in the 19th century from the church historical connection to the Byzantine Empire, the Russian Byzantinologie.

For the 1832 re-established the state of Greece byzantinistische research was of great importance, as the young state was trying to find his cultural identification in the ancient and medieval Orthodox tradition. The later Greek Prime Minister Spyridon Lambros (1851-1919) founded the Greek Byzantinologie, which was continued by his students and Krumbachers.

An excellent role does the Byzantinologie also in other countries in the Balkan Peninsula since the Byzantine sources are often important for the history of their own people. So there is a long tradition of research, for example, in Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary. Other centers of Byzantinologie are located in the USA, UK, France and Italy. In German-speaking countries are today the Institute for Byzantine Studies, Byzantine Art History and Modern Greek at the Ludwig- Maximilians- University of Munich and the Institute for Byzantine and Modern Greek at the University of Vienna, the most important. As an international umbrella organization of the Byzantine Studies Association International des Etudes Byzantines acts ( AIEB ) with legal headquarters in Paris.