Mongolic languages

The Mongolian languages ​​form one in Asia, especially in Mongolia, China and Russia, isolated in Afghanistan widespread language family of about 15 relatively closely related languages ​​with 7.5 million speakers. They do not differ so much in the vocabulary, but more in the morphology (shape formation) and syntax.

Mongolian as a subgroup of the Altaic languages

The Mongolian languages ​​are often placed in a genetic connection with the Tungusic and Turkic languages, and combined with, as " Altaic language family ." Undoubtedly, the existing typological and lexical similarities between Mongolian, Tungusic, and Turkic languages ​​, however, can be explained by a mutual influence as a result of language contact rather than genetic relatedness. The question of the genetic unity of the Altaic languages ​​remains controversial in historical linguistics. These articles detail the Altaic languages.

The major languages

The following Mongolian languages ​​have at least 100,000 native speakers:

Classification

The genetic unity of the Mongolian languages ​​is completely uncontroversial, but the inner structure of this language family - especially because of the relatively large similarity of most languages ​​, which leads to problems of demarcation - discussed quite brisk. The traditional classification into a western and ostmongolischen main branch, as well as a residual category of so-called border languages ​​was motivated solely areal rather than genetic, with the current but not the historic distribution of languages ​​was used.

The present more genetically oriented classification is based primarily on V. Rybatzki, Intra- Mongolic taxonomy. from J. Janhunen (ed. ), The Mongolic Languages ​​. (2003). In order to classify the extent of lexical similarities of each language was used.

  • Mongolian ( 14 languages ​​, 7.5 million speakers) Dagur ( Northeast Mongolian) Dagur (alternatively Dahur, Tahur, Daur, Dahuren etc.) (100 thousand)
  • Chamnigan ( Mongol - Chamnigan ) (2 to 3 thousand ) ( bilingual mongol. - Tungus. )
  • Buriat ( Buryat, Buryaad ) (450 thousand)
  • Khalkha Ordos Mongolian ( 5-6 million) Jerim dialect group: Chor Chin, Jasagtu, Jarut, Jalait - Dörbet, Gorlos
  • Juu -Uda group: Aru choir Chin, Baarin, Ongniut, Naiman, Aochan
  • Josotu Group: Harachin, Tumat
  • Ulan- TSAB Group: Tchachar, urate, Darkhan, Muumingan, Dörben Küüket, Keschigten
  • Shilingol Group: Üdzümütschin, Khuutschit, Abaga, Abaganar, Sönit
  • Dialect group of outer Mongolia: Khalkha, Chotogoit, Darchat, Tsongol, Sartul, Dariganga
  • Oiratisch ( Oirat, Oyirad ) ( 350 thousand )
  • Kalmyk ( Kalmyk ) ( 180k )
  • Shira Yughur ( Dongbu Yugu, East Yughur, Nggar ) ( 3 thousand, 6 thousand ethnic )
  • Mongghuol ( Huzhu Mongghul, Monguor, Tu) ( 150k, ethnic 200k )
  • Mangghuer ( Minhe Mangghuer ) (25 thousand)
  • Bonan ( Baoan, Paoan, Paongan ) ( 6 thousand )
  • Kangjia ( 0.4 thousand) ( only discovered in the 1990s )
  • Santa ( Sarta, Dongxiang, Tung Cheung Tung ) ( 250 thousand )
  • Mogholi ( Moghol ) (200 speakers, ethnic 3 thousand )

Geographic distribution by state

The Mongolian languages ​​are widely spoken in Mongolia, China, Russia and Afghanistan. The following table shows the distribution of languages ​​with the current numbers of speakers in each country.

Mongolian languages ​​- Distribution by States

Lexical comparison

The fact that most Mongolian languages ​​are relatively closely related, show the following word equations from the basic vocabulary of the most important modern Mongolian languages. In addition, the proto- Mongolian or altmongolische form, the form of the literary Mongolian is ( preserved in vertical Uighur script since the 12th century, fixed in the 17th century) and the Central Mongolian form listed ( 13th to 16th century).

Source: S. Starostin, Altaic Etymological Database, Internet, 2005. ( Partially available in book form. S. Starostin ( et al ), Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, Part 1 ( AK), Brill, Leiden, 2003. )

Periods of speech and writing systems

One divides the Mongolian language historically in periods following a:

  • Altmongolisch - Mongolian before the 13th century

The Altmongolische is still close to Proto -Mongolian, the construct of a proto-language from which all Mongolian languages ​​have emerged, and is itself a proto-language that would differ only by the exclusion of Khitan from the proto- Mongol. It contains numerous Turkic and Mongolian loanwords and was also influenced by the Chinese of the Tang Dynasty. During this time, your own writing was of the Mongolian Khitan, who founded the Liao Dynasty, developed. This then served as the basis for the independent writing of the Tungusic Jurchen and also as the basis of the Manchu script. At the end of the ancient Mongolian period, the vertical Uighur script was taken by the Mongols.

  • Mittelmongolisch - Mongolian from the 13th to the early 17th century

Mittelmongolisch is in texts in Chinese transcription receive (the main text is " The Secret History of the Mongols ", ca 1240), but also in the Tibetan Phags - Pa - writing and bilingual glossaries. However oldest preserved testimony of Scripture about 1225 is the stone of Yisüngge, a nephew of Genghis Khan. At the end of this period, the conversion of the Mongols to the ( Tibetan ) Buddhism ( 17th century ) was performed. That's why many translations from Tibetan or Sanskrit were published and adopted, or translated into Mongolian Buddhist terms.

In the medium term the differentiation of the Mongolian Mongolian dialects which developed into the present-day Mongolian languages ​​later begins.

  • Modern Mongolian - Mongolian since the 17th century

In the 17th century, the transition to modern spoken language, but also the fixation of the classical literary language, which goes back to Old and Middle Mongolian stages was done. The spoken forms of the Mongolian have been very far from the written language.

The change in the initial sound Altaic / p /

The Mongolian language levels can be, inter alia, to make the change in the Altaic initial sound / p / clearly. It remained altmongolisch as / p / receive was mittelmongolisch to / h /, in the modern Mongolian ( in the classical literary language ) it disappears completely. example:

  • Altmongolisch pon > mittelmongolisch hon > lit. Mongolian on " year "

The writing systems of the Mongolian see also the article Mongolian language Mongolian script.

Linguistic characteristics

Typological characteristics

In terms of typology, the Mongolian languages ​​very similar to the other two groups of Altaic languages ​​( Turkic and Tungusic ) that these features are thus largely gemeinaltaisch and can be found partly in Uralic and Paleo-Siberian languages ​​(see Altaic languages).

The most important typological characteristics of the Mongolian languages ​​are:

  • Medium Phoneminventare and simple syllable structure, hardly consonant cluster. Usually seven vowels ( the "Turkish" / ı / with / i / collapsed ). The vowels can be classified according to their place of articulation ( front-rear), rounding ( rounded - unrounded ) and height ( high-low ). This classification is for the vocal harmony is crucial.
  • Vowel harmony between the last vowel of the stem and the following suffix, which is based on different vocal opposition, especially on the place of articulation " front-back " ( " Palatal vowel harmony "). Some Mongolian languages ​​, such as Mogholi and Tu, the vowel harmony have lost. Example from the Khalkha:
  • A continuous agglutinative word formation and inflection, and indeed almost exclusively by suffixes. Each morpheme has a specific meaning and grammatical function and - apart from the requirements of vowel harmony - steady.
  • Adjectives are not inflected in the modern Mongolian languages ​​, they show no congruence with their determination word, which they precede. ( However, the older language stages remains a congruence exhibit in number and gender. )
  • When using quantifiers ( number words, quantities ), the plural marker is omitted.
  • There are no items.
  • There is no grammatical gender, not even in the pronouns.
  • Important for Mongolian languages ​​the concept of converbs is (basically participles ) that are used as a substitute for subordinate clauses. These examples below from the Khalkha.
  • The verb is at the end of a sentence, the normal sentence order is SOV ( subject-object - verb).

Nominal Education

The nouns of the Mongolian languages ​​have the categories number (singular / plural) and case ( seven cases), which are identified by a plural or Kasusmarker. The plural marker in front of the Kasusmarkern, both suffixes are subject to vowel harmony (see above).

The plural form is shown by the example of the Khalkha. Plural markers / nar /, / UUD / and / čuud / and variants thereof, as well as rare / d / and / s /.

Examples of plural formation in Khalkha

The following table shows the Kasusmarker and the declination of the word times "cattle" in Khalkha.

Adjectives

  • Ulaan nom " the red ( ulaan ) Book ( nom ) "
  • Ulaan nom - UUD " red books"
  • Ulaan nom - iin " the red book"

There is no change in the preceding adjective in number and case and there is no congruence with the destination word.

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns in the nominative loud:

In the second person singular, the former plural form ta only the polite pronoun "You " corresponds to today. The pronouns of the third person are descended from Demonstratifvpronomina and differ according to whether the person in question is far away or close to the speaker; ter stands for " he / she / it " (there is also the pronoun no gender marking). In the declination have the pronouns in the singular and oblique in the first person plural forms, in the first person plural in the genitive between exclusive and inklusivem "we" are distinguished. The oblique strains of the third person singular are now replaced in the spoken language mostly through the regular forms.

The oblique forms of the personal pronoun

Verbal morphology

The basic features of the verbal form are explained using the example of the Khalkha.

Aspect and tense

Mongolian verbs distinguish two aspects, one perfective ( completed action ) and imperfective ( non- completed action ). Both aspects can in turn have the preterite tenses ( past) and present - future tense (non- past). Thus, each verb has four Stammformmen, which are characterized by the following suffixes:

The stem-form marker of the Mongolian verb

These forms do not have a distinction between the person and can not be negated. Examples:

  • Ter ire- v " he / she / it has come" ( perfective, past)
  • Bid nom - iig uncer- na ​​" we will read a book "

Negation

The negation is performed by the negation marker / gui /, which is appended to verbal nouns. In the past tense, the verbal noun is used on / san /, in the present - future tense on / x /. Examples:

  • Ter ir -sen gui " he / she / it has not come "
  • Bi mede -x - gui " I do not know"

Iterative, durative

An iterative or durative aspect can be / is expressed by the verbal noun on / dag. example:

  • Ter Ulaanbaatart Amidar -dag " he lives ( constantly ) in Ulaanbaatar "

Imperative

The imperative is formed by the bare stem, its polite form by / aarai / his denial with the help of / bitgii /. Examples:

  • Yav! "Go! "
  • Yaw - aarai! " Please go! "
  • Bitgii yav! " Do not go "

There are still about 10 more imperative endings, which are used depending on the situation and urgency and in strength between a non-binding request ( yav - maar ) to an urgent request ( yav - aach ) may be enough.

Converbs

Converbs be used in all Mongolian languages ​​in the coordination or subordination of multiple sets, you can view them as participles. Depending on the function they have different shapes.

A simple sequence is initiated by the Konverb on / dž /, only the last verb in such a chain is in a finite form. example:

  • Bi Doloon CAGT bos - dž, oglooni Xool ide - dž, nom uncer -v
  • " I stood at seven clock on, ate breakfast and read ( then ) a book "

Prematurity is expressed by the Konverb on / aad /. Example (due to vowel harmony here / ood / ):

  • Bid xuvcas oms - ood, nom - oog uncer- na ​​" after we have attracted us, we will read a book "

Literature: Examples of the morphology partly from GL Campbell, Compendium of the World 's Languages ​​.

Genetic relationship (linguistics) Monguor language Daur people Bonans Khitan people Manchu alphabet Grammatical number
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