Monism

Monism is the philosophical or metaphysical position that all processes and phenomena of the world can be traced back to a single basic principle. Monism refers so that a counter to dualism and pluralism that accept two or many basic principles. In religion monistic doctrines often are close to pantheism or panentheism the who sees a present ( immanence ) the Divine in all phenomena of the world.

Monistic doctrines are known on several occasions in the history of mankind. The term " monism ", however, was ( from, "alone", and -ism Greek monos " only " ) only coined in the late 19th century as a Greco- Latin word art.

3.1 International Law
3.2 Public Law / Private Law
3.3 Public property
3.4 property gains tax
3.5 Copyright

In philosophy

In the philosophy is often talk of " substances " that make up the world. While the philosophical dualism usually two substances - mind and matter - assuming monism is based on the existence of only one substance from. There can be three broad directions of monism identify:

Each of these three main directions assumes that all known processes can be traced back to the said principle. Often this the principle of reductionism is being used.

Specific forms of monism:

Ancient Greece

Some natural philosophers of antiquity were monists who believed to have each recognized a primary matter.

Anaximander - Apeiron (about: the non- circumscribable, incomprehensible, Infinity )
Anaximenes - air
Democritus (~ 460-370 BC) already assumed that the whole world only from unstable clusters smallest parts - the atoms - there
Heraclitus - Fire
Parmenides - Being
Thales - water.

European Early Modern History

Known representatives of materialistic monism were Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), Paul Henri Thiry d' Holbach (1723-1789) and Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1707-1751), the interaction of material components laid the basis of all mental operations.

For d' Holbach, there was no dualism between matter about versus spirit or soul versus body, rather, especially in his book Système de la Nature ou Des Loix du Monde Physique et du Monde Moral ( 1770), he represented a consistent monism. He saw human knowledge, thought, or feeling as an expression of the matter inherent principle of motion and determinism.

Baruch de Spinoza (1632-1677) is sometimes associated with the idealistic monism, because of its view that there is only one substance (God), while things like the mental processes of human beings are only modes of a substance; but see Neutral monism.

Indian philosophy

One of the main directions of the Indian Vedanta philosophy is:

Advaita Vedānta, as interpreted by Shankara, teaches the unity of Atman and Brahman.
Vishishtadvaita - Vedanta posits God as the only existence.

In political science

The two terms monism / pluralism is primarily used to refer to single and multi- party systems.
The Aufgabenmonismus is a form of organization of public administration.

In the jurisprudence

In the law it is called in different contexts of monistic respectively two-tier systems.

International law

In international law are monism and dualism two main directions, arising from either the unity of national and international law or by their separateness. When monism a norm of international law does not require translation into national law, but is directly applicable. From a monism about the prevailing doctrine in Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands goes out. In Germany, by contrast, has the dualistic theory. This has the consequence that international law must first be transposed into national law before it by the private sector is justiciable in Germany. However, not this includes the directly applicable EU law, in particular the EU regulations.

Public Law / Private Law

In the continental European legal systems usually the great distinction between public law and private law on the one hand is made on the other. It therefore is a two-tier, two-tier system. In Anglo-Saxon legal systems, however, the unity of law is emphasized, which is why it is called a monistic system.

Public property

Administrative capacity and public matters in public use - - According to the monistic system, legal issues concerning public matters in the narrower sense assessed solely by public law. Particular, therefore, its own public property ownership must apply. The dualistic theory is depending on the legal question, however, in public matters partly on civil law from. In particular, the two-tier system applies to civil property ownership.

The monistic order is originally from France, but was in many western Swiss cantons. Germany always knew almost exclusively the two-tier system that has now completely replaced the one-tier system in Switzerland.

Property gains tax

When collected by Swiss cantons and municipalities capital gains tax in the one-tier system, the real property gains tax is levied on property gains, regardless of whether the property is located in the residential or business assets. In the two-tier system, however, the capital gains tax is levied only on land as private property, while property gains, as business assets are income- tax profit respectively. It is the cantons freely between the two systems to choose (Art. 12 para 1 and 4 Tax Harmonisation Act ).

Copyright

In copyright monism refers to the inseparability of the personal rights and recycling legal powers of the author. The German Copyright Act follows the monistic theory.

In the religions

In the Catholic Church the " divine unity " with the basic principle is identified. Similar views can be found in other branches of Christianity or Judaism. Even with the monotheistic Bahai there are numerous statements in the Holy Scriptures, can be interpreted monistic.

For Hinduism see above under "Indian philosophy ". The oldest Hindu scripture, the Rig Veda speaks of " being - non- being" which " breathed without breath" and its effect created the world. Practices such as yoga or tantra are often referred to as a monistic.

Ernst Haeckel designed on a scientific basis, the outlook of the development monism. The core of this direction is the full integration of man into nature, atheism or a natural and equal with God translated pantheism and finally the renunciation of all revelation and belief in miracles.