Roman aqueduct
The water supply in the Roman Empire with its water lines via aqueducts is considered as a typical part of Roman culture. They carried water up to 100 km wide ( for example, the Eifel aqueduct ) mostly underground, but partly also on bridges in major cities of the Roman Empire. Rome alone was supplied by eleven aqueducts. In many cities, the water was disposed of through a sewer again.
Survey
The first aqueduct of Rome, Aqua Appia, was built in 312 BC by Appius Claudius Caecus. He started on the Via Praenestina, flowed about 17 km underground and was passed through the Porta Capena into town to Campus Martius.
Especially in Rome allowed the lines a gigantic water consumption: According to a count by the year 400 AD, there were eleven aqueducts in Rome alone, eleven baths, 856 private baths and fountains in 1352. On the basis of deposits on the walls of water pipes and other archaeological findings one can estimate the per capita consumption. After Heinz Otto Lamprecht this was 370-450 liters per day ( in Germany it was 126 liters / day in 2005 ). Even today in Rome three aqueducts in operation: the Aqua Virgo, today Acqua Vergine ( feeds the Trevi Fountain ) and other 70 wells, the Aqua Alexandrina, today Acqua Felice ( it feeds the fountain of Moses ) and the Aqua Traiana, today, Acqua Paola ( it feeds the Fontana Acqua Paola ). Remains of seven aqueducts are to be seen in the Parco degli Acquedotti.
Many other cities have been supplied with aqueducts, such as Augusta Treverorum (Trier), Mogontiacum (Mainz), Colonia Ulpia Traiana ( Xanten ), Lugdunum (Lyon ), Aspendos, Nemausus (Nîmes ), Tarraco (Tarragona ) or Segovia. The Germans will Aqueduct mostly channeled through the arch constructions lines understood, in Latin, the word every water line, regardless of whether it passes below or above ground.
Sextus Julius Frontinus, who was in the year 97 AD Curator aquarum, reports on the nine leading to Rome aqueducts that were built AD until the end of the first century. Three of them had Marcus Agrippa Vipsanius build in the 1st century BC, restore some older. In the 2nd and 3rd century two more aqueducts were added, could not yet report on the Frontinus. The ancient city of Rome was supplied by eleven aqueducts thus with water. The numerous branches at the inlet and outlet are not considered.
Water pipes
While in the early days of the Roman Empire were used primarily near rivers and springs for water supply other than wells, sank because of the growing population, however, the quality and also the amount is no longer enough. At this point, a natural growth limit was reached, so that you now had to divert water from other sources to Rome.
Lines outside the city
Vitruvius describes in his book, de architectura, how to seek water sources:
"You put yourself before sunrise with his face to the ground and support the chin up and contemplate the surrounding [ ... ] one sees rippling and ascending into the air moist exhalations, one should dig there."
The sources were mostly with water-permeable walls through which trickled the water and was thus easily cleaned, edged. The greatest distance from the source of the water travels underground back in open channels of brick or Opus Caementitium. Approximately 430 km of a total of 504 miles of water line to Rome went underground, which are 85%. This makes the water remained cool and frost-free in winter in summer. The gradient was partially surprisingly low: When the Pont du Gard, it is 0.035 %, which is 35 inches to a mile, at the aqua Marcia 0.29 % ( 2.9 meters per kilometer ), and at aqua Claudia 0, 37% ( 3.7 meters per kilometer ).
At regular intervals, ventilation and inspection shafts were installed. The channels were usually rectangular and covered by a brick vault. Depending on the amount of water they were between a half and two meters wide. Inside they were impervious to water with lime or opus signinum plastered.
If a undergrounding has not been possible as ravines, the water was usually passed over a bridge often multi-storey building. At valley depths over 50 m, a discharge pipe (siphon or siphon ), which was based on the principle of communicating tubes, constructed (as in Aspendus ). If the line a hill section, which could not be avoided, usually a tunnel with ventilation shafts was excavated in the Quanatbauweise. Another example from pre-Roman times is the one kilometer tunnel of Samos. The tunnel was driven simultaneously from both sides in Gegenortvortrieb according to the plans of Eupalinos into the mountain.
Inner-city lines
The water was once in the city most centrally directed (also called water castle ) in the castellum. This was a large basin in which all the water collected, cleaned and distributed to the various customers. Especially in dry areas, the water was in huge cisterns, such as the Fildami Cistern near Istanbul stored, they took good 100,000 cubic meters for drying times.
Sextus Julius Frontinus, who was 94 Curator aquarum year, recommends that you make from the pool of three outlets at different heights: a bottom, where almost always flowing water for the public fountain, a second later for other public buildings such as the Baths or the nymphaeums and the third highest, by the often could get no water for the private buyer, but pay a fixed water money. This system was but rarely used as in Pompeii, were usually the drains at the same height.
Within the city the water was then distributed by means of sound - pressure or lead pipes ( fistulae ), sometimes even precast concrete elements were used. Especially in larger cities such as Pompeii in seven -meter-high water towers were distributed between them to keep the water pressure is high, but even so while repairs are not succumbed to the water supply. For the tubes very large amounts of lead were needed. A lead pipe having a diameter of about ten centimeters required about one ton of lead for a pipe length of 37.5 meters. It became such a 20 digiti -pipe only a mean size in the designated Vitruvius, uniform pipe strengths Represents the largest tube with 100 digiti described would have a weight of about 133 kg / m.
Water theft
Most Romans had to bring water to the public fountains, but in many cases the line of lead pipes was " pierced " in order to irrigate the own fields.
" [ ... ] A number of landowners in whose fields lead past the aqueducts, tap into the lines; Hence it is that actually the public water supply by private individuals come to a standstill, just so they can irrigate their gardens. "
Since the line for private individuals often led no water, underground illegal lines were partially relocated and thus tapped the line for the public well even within the city.
" In vast areas run at various places hidden lines under the pavement. I found out that these pipes through special junctions water delivered to all those who had business houses in the regions concerned, while public pipes were drilled for this purpose, here and there by " broachings ". How much water was stolen in this way, I can be estimated only by the fact that a considerable amount of lead was introduced by the removal of such branches. "
Some protection against private abuse offered the Roman practice of lead pipe inscriptions.
Water quality
The quality of the discharged water to Rome was very different in terms of purity and taste. The poorer water was used as process water. For the water quality of individual lines refer to the table above.
The source of the Anio Novus lost their previous quality every time it rains. After the attempt failed, to mix the water with others, we attempted to tackle it in a basin where the impurities should settle. However, this also suggested fail. Finally solved the problem by passing the water through the it created as reservoirs of Subiaco. There the sediments deposed and the water gained significantly in purity.
Although Vitruvius had already warned against the negative health effects of lead pipes, but the pipes were manufactured almost anywhere in this practical, easy to apply, waterproof metal.
Maintenance and management
While in the Republic especially the censors for the construction and maintenance of the lines were still in charge, there was since the imperial era the post of curator aquarum. According to Frontinus him were under a freedman, later ritterständischer Procurator aquarum and various supervisory and management officials and a group of state-owned assemblers ( Aquarii ). Partly were added also independent companies that had closed with the Authority contracts for the construction or maintenance.
During maintenance there were often problems, especially in the sections that led over bridges. Archaeological findings and written sources testify that often do not vonstattenging the construction work carefully enough, and therefore frequent repairs made necessary, as for example in the Aqua Claudia. Even ten years after completion had to be rectified fundamental flaws. But this repair lasted nine years, but after four more years of the repairs had to be repaired again. There are notes on the preserved remains of the aqueduct that was fudged both during construction as well as repairs.
Of failed projects reported in this way one of the letters of Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan from Nicomedia in the province of Bithynia et Pontus:
" For a water pipe, O Lord, the people of Nicomedia have spent 3.318 million sesterces, the building is still unfinished, set even been demolished; for another line they have in turn issued 200,000 sesterces. Since this was abandoned, now has to be applied by new money, so people finally get water, who missed these sums useless. "
Roman water supply in Germany
Remains of Roman aqueducts can be found in Germany in:
- Colonia Ulpia Traiana ( Xanten ) - Water line from the Sonsbecker height as well as in the so -called " Furth " and the forester's house hazel hedge
- Mogontiacum - Roman stones in Zahlbachtal
- Rottenburg am Neckar ( Sumelocenna ) - Water line from Rommelstal, end unknown
- Roman aqueduct at Brey
- Roman Ruwerwasserleitung at Trier (Augusta Treverorum )
Rusticae water supply to villages, castles and Villae
In rural settlements mainly wells have been used to care. Buildings with a high demand for water as fort baths were often close to streams and rivers to allow easy and outlet (like the castle and fort Rückingen Blessed City), or to sources such as the castle Kapersburg. Epigraphic evidence for the construction and two-time renewal of a water pipe are from the West Castle of Öhringen.
Shorter distances were overcome by covered passages, both bricked as also designed with stones and bricks, plates and covered. Are also conceivable overhead lines made of wood, but which have been preserved only under favorable circumstances. Occasionally they may be demonstrated using the iron of finds Deichelringe. Finds such lines of clay are well documented.
Also, some villa rustica decreed by the wording of a nearby spring running water. But they were instructed as agricultural holdings on the proximity to the water for the livestock and had already often a stream within their land.
Dams
In the Roman Empire there were several hundred dams, mostly for collecting waste water, rather rare for the production of fresh water. Most dams were so-called gravity dams, ie, the wall keeps the water pressure only by its own weight was ( Lake of Homs in Syria).
However, the Romans were also innovative in the construction of other, unknown to date dam types. In Spain, about numerous pillars dams were built. There are also beginnings of arch dams, where the pressure on the valley sides is derived. Examples are the Glanum Dam in Provence or the Dara Dam in Mesopotamia. The mixed type of arch-gravity dam was also known. The Esparragalejo dam at Emerita Augusta (Mérida ) is considered the first multiple arch dam.
One of the largest surviving dams include the 427 -meter-long Proserpina Dam and the 28 meter high Cornalvo Dam, both for water supply of Mérida. The first and only built by the Romans dam in Italy was the massive barrage of Subiaco, the highest dam in the ancient world.
Sanitation
The most common sewage system of the Roman Empire is the Cloaca Maxima in Rome. Originally, it was an open channel, which was only stocked in the imperial period. The Cloaca Maxima was up to 3 m wide and 4 m high. They ran from the Forum of Augustus to the Tiber, where she led the Pons Aemilius.
Also in other cities sewer systems have been found. In Cologne ten main collectors are demonstrated; the width is up to 1.5 meters and the height to 2.45 meters and all resulted in the Rhine. Also in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), Xanten ( Colonia Ulpia Traiana ) and Lauriacum (today Lorch (Upper Austria ) ) there are remains of sewers.
Many Roman houses possessed sewers and some have toilets. Also the most Roman roads was a drainage. State roads curved from the center towards the edge and in many city streets, the water was passed through drainage holes in the sewer. A British Royal Commission held in 1842 after a visit to the sewage systems in Rome this. Hygienic than for those in the former Great Britain
Swell
- Sextus Julius Frontinus, De aquaeductu urbis Romae
- Vitruvius, De architectura libri decem