Selfishness

Egoism (Greek / Latin ego, I ' ) means " self-interest ". The Duden dictionary of foreign words describes selfishness as " self-centeredness ", "I - addiction ", " selfishness ", " self-love ".

Egoism ( plural) are therefore actions in which only the agent itself determines the guiding principle. In this case, these actions usually have the unrestricted own advantage of the actor for the purpose. If this advantage is also the advantage of the other at the same time in a symbiotic living, then these actions are ethically fully legitimized. Mostly, however, is an egoist understood as a myopic doer in the sense of Raffgieregoisten which can hardly accept it when other people show him greedy opposite each other as well. The Raffgieregoist admits himself that is more freedoms than he admits others.

" Egoism " is usually pejorative used as a synonym for reckless behavior and judged as " indecent". The term then describes the attitude to pursue exclusively external personal interests without regard to the needs or even to the detriment of others. Egoism is criticized in this context as the opposite of altruism and solidarity, but this only applies when the internal benefits are not taken into account in the assessment of action.

Conversely, there is the view that altruism is possible only through the attainment of one's own well-being, somewhat analogous to the rule that applies in rescue operations that the self-protection is the first measure of first aid, or, as in the well-known quote from the Bible: " You shall love your neighbor as thyself "( Mark 12:31 EU)

The negative view of egoism as egomania is in contrast to a positive rating of a "healthy" egoism, which is elaborated in the philosophical ethical egoism. A free evaluation considers the factual assertion of the psychological egoism that all people de facto acted selfishly. Also, value-free economics is the model of Homo economicus.

The term " Reciprocal altruism " is an attempt to discuss the interaction between selfish behavior and altruism, it being assumed that selfish behavior may be altruistic.

Criteria / definition

1 primacy of the ego: Regardless of destination, purpose or effect of setting or action bringing forward of the self / ego is imperative for selfishness.

2 Awareness: egoism is to be distinguished from self-centeredness ( see below). Egoism takes place in a more or less conscious and / or deliberate attitude. Egocentrism takes place unconsciously.

Definitions

Egoism is a highly controversial phenomenon, as it is understood differently by different people and groups who rated or defined. He is often also used interest-based in order to achieve certain purposes: for example, justification of power or even to reduce the other. Therefore, it is useful to define the concept by means of further identifying detail. It can therefore be distinguished at least four forms of egoism. An attempt of classification might look like this: Following the subjective approach, a distinction between egoism and selfishness in the narrow sense in the broader sense, according to the objective approach is the positive disconnect the negative selfishness.

Selfishness in a broader sense:

Considering egoism in the broadest sense, is and every human behavior has to be classified as selfish, because every conscious action is an individual assessment of the intrinsic benefits of the predicate offense. Thus, in the broadest sense even altruistic behavior are subordinated to the term egoism, since the altruistic actor subjectively evaluated his actions as beneficial. This also applies to all other definitions, but is hidden in their meaning to create a simplification and to make the concept manageable.

Selfishness in the narrow sense:

Positive egoism:

In the objective approach, the consequences of human activities evaluated, because it is assumed that the true intentions of human activity are difficult or even not be determined. From positive selfishness we speak therefore, if the consequences of self-centered thinking and behavior objectively have a common use and do not harm the individual. In particular, the notion of competition is based on this positive conception of egoism. This egoism describes the driving, prosperity, and thus generally well -promoting effects of self-centered thinking.

Another phenomenon of positive selfishness is " cooperative egoism ", which can be observed especially in the United States: Persons who are most committed to egoistic values ​​such as career and self-realization, are often also those who value community activities high and a spend much of their leisure for others. The cooperative egoism is also referred to as " altruistic individualism ". This shows that positive selfish motives can become blurred with altruistic goals.

The " objectivism " by Ayn Rand describes a so-called "rational " egoism, which is represented by its representatives as a rational and productive activity for their own benefit and respecting the rights of other negative individuals. These rights protect essentially life, liberty and property in terms of a defense of physical violence; protection against structural violence, however, is missing in the " objectivism ".

Negative egoism:

Among forms of self-centered thinking are summarized, so far its consequences are detrimental to the common good and individual inflict damage. Social differences, ruthlessness, war and human disasters are objectively ascertainable possible consequences of this selfishness understanding.

Reflection in the religions

Christianity

In following Jesus of Nazareth a selfish attitude to Christians is not possible. The unselfish love, the tradition of the Church uses the term agape, is the goal of man. However, confesses further mentioned above and, according to tradition of the New Testament, even quoted by Jesus as " love thy neighbor as thyself," at least as much self-interest that also the "next" can be part of it only by obtaining one's own welfare. Who does not love itself, can therefore also his neighbor not love. This in turn corresponds to the theory that altruism without a minimum of selfishness can not exist.

Game theory

In game theory, the attempt by a player to minimize his maximum loss could serve as an indicator that the player RELATES selfish.

The ultimatum game shows that people forego the receipt of funds shares when they perceive to be dividing with them a share as too small and when " too selfish " part end does not receive any amount by their renunciation also. The behavior of the waiving individual first appears irrational, as behavior in groups, this reaction has, however, preserved and proves proven so than evolutionary. For by the threat of total loss in the event of a waiver of the need to be involved, the distribution is being urged not to let the proportion fail "too small", which corresponds to a rational course of action entirely. Here also acts clearly the important in game theory difference between a one-off game played and a repeated game played. In repeated games is not only played a useful function, but always - as a meta-game - to preserve or change the rules of the game itself A decision is not about good and evil, but there are simple rules of the game evolutionarily selected, the occurrence of the Game. maximize

Neuroscientific findings

Nikolaus Steinbeis, a psychologist at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, has found with colleagues that the child's brain is not developed enough to make a just decision. The childish egoism does not, therefore, that the little ones may or may not know what is just not be generous.

With experiments on game theory Steinbeis has examined a particular type of social behavior in 146 children aged 6 to 14 years: the strategic action.

Nayef RF Al- Rodhan derives from his neurological research on the human image of emotional amoral egoism.

A measure of the egoistic needs is also the comparison with other people. Thus, the following behavior was observed in an experiment at the University of Bonn, among other things: test persons had to estimate the number of dots on a screen, were rewarded for a correct result with money. They responded to the information that her teammates had miscalculated, while they themselves were right, with a much higher activity of their reward center, as if both players were able to call the correct result. This they did, although the activities of the opponent had no influence on their own remuneration. The damage detriment of the other was therefore assessed as positive.

Perhaps here lies an important cause of phenomena such as envy and resentment. It is probably assumed in anticipation of the emergence of the comparison with the respective avisierten person or group to the detriment of the person who drew the comparison.

If one assumes that all people are selfish in itself, an explanation for this reaction might be that, at least subconsciously in the selfishness of others basically a " tip " to the similar pursuit of satisfaction is seen their own needs. This would therefore trigger (usually secretly cherished ) disapproval. Even Thomas Hobbes saw the cause of such behavior in a actually taking place, the ongoing struggle for resources, where basically every once claimed everything for himself.

Altruistic behavior also results from the phenomenon of egoism. Thus, to observe at least, that a generally more generous behaving this man also experiences a significant positive reaction of his reward system. These people therefore rather tend pleasing towards other to behave as people in whom this reaction is much lower or absent.

Criticism

Many a time is reflected by the term elbow mentality to denounce a reckless behavior of individuals and groups with respect to their interests selfishness. The focus of the debate is the question whether reckless behavior can be prevented by social regulation. In this respect, the opinions - depending on the ( political-economic ) philosophy - strong apart. While in favor of a regulation, because they are of the opinion that selfishness leads itself to reckless behavior, while others take the opposite opinion. In your opinion, arises recklessness only through regulation, because this would lead to a reduction in natural social skills. According to crime arises only through their regulation, this would lead to a reduction in natural social skills. One reason for the discussion are different interpretations of the term " regulation". This can be done through legislation but also by exercising social skills.

Institutional egoism

Egoism can also refer to one's own group. Such " institutional egoism " often explains the behavior of the person responsible for a specific institution under a dictatorship. Thus, for example, concentrated Heads of Churches on securing the existence of their own church. To achieve this, they were willing to adapt. Thus, such adaptation steps do not express any ideological proximity to the ideology of those in power. In addition to adaptation but there can also be the opposite, namely a rejection of certain wishes of the government. So the president of the Academy of Sciences in Vienna fought against certain desires, whereby the activity scope of the Academy would have been limited. In other expectations did not yield any disadvantages for the Academy, on the other hand it could well be accommodating. But also be rejected in a dictatorship where the government wishes, it shall provide not necessarily a principled opposition to the government and its ideology to see.

Quotes

• Max Stirner: I'm doing nothing about me from his main work The Ego and Its Own in 1845