Social justice

The concept of social justice refers to social conditions that may be considered fair or equitable in terms of their relative distribution of rights, opportunities and resources. What exactly is the content and scale of this form of justice, but is controversial and complex since time immemorial.

As an independent term " social justice " was created in the mid-19th century in connection with the social question. The term goes back to the work Saggio di teoretico diritto naturale appoggiato sul fatto ( 1840-43 ) by Luigi d' Azeglio Taparelli. In 1931, he was with the publication of the encyclical Quadragesimo anno of Pope Pius XI. for the first time formally and officially used in the doctrines of the Pope. Social justice was used as a regulative principle for the solution of the social question. In the encyclical, the term was not used with complete intellectual sharpness, so that there is room for different emphases remained.

Since the 1970s, with particular reference to the represented by John Rawls in "A Theory of Justice " egalitarian liberalism a new meaning to the discussion of social justice, won. Another representative of this trend applies Amartya Sen. On Rawls concluded, among other things, the criticism by communitarians like Michael Walzer. In the German-speaking social justice is increasingly discussed again in the social debate since the late 1960s.

  • 3.1 Use in Germany
  • 3.2 Dimensions of social justice
  • 4.1 Germany
  • 4.2 International activities

History of Ideas

The foundation of the differentiation of the concept of justice was carried out by Aristotle, this was significantly developed by Thomas Aquinas. References to social justice could be, according to Rolf Kramer already found in Aristotle. Due to the legal justice of the citizen is a member of the state, which is the whole obligation. The particularistic justice in the form of compensatory justice, and especially distributive justice would have a bearing on social justice. In contrast, Arno Anzenbacher believes that social justice can not leave arrange just inside the differentiation of the concept of justice from Aristotle. Christoph Giersch also concludes that the definition of the relationship to this classic understanding of justice remain inconsistent and unclear.

According Otfried Hoffe of expression, social justice ' in philosophy appears very late and also " so casually that his first appearance to make hardly arrest " was. The notion of a " social justice " was first discussed together with the social question in the industrial society. Unlike the going back to Aristotle thought model, which affected only the relationship of individuals to each other ( traffic justice ) or to the State ( distributive and legal justice ), the term social justice, also referred to those relationships, as their subjects and objects are social stratification and structures.

Social justice is according to Peter Koller both distributive and corrective, political and commutative elements. It has been described in the following sizes (see also theories of justice ):

  • Commutative justice
  • Poetic justice
  • Intergenerational equity
  • Justice against animals
  • Global Justice

Conceptualization and controversies

Catholic Social Teaching

The term "social justice " or " social justice " as it found its way into Catholic social teaching, was probably first coined by the Jesuit Luigi d' Azeglio Taparelli in the 19th century. In his five -volume work on the grounds of natural law in the tradition of rationalist Barockscholastik Taparelli d' Azeglio speaks of a " giustizia sociale ", a translation into French "justice ( droit et ) social", in German translation "social justice." This concept he describes as " justice of a people against another ," and refers it to an equality of every human being in terms of " rights of mankind in general." Nevertheless Taparelli seeks to be the inherent individual differences into account and postulates: " the actions of a people will be so fair if they are adapted to the various individual rights of his fellow men ." So would have received about goods quantitatively ( " Commuting justice " ), in the case of goods received Community proportional ( " inductric justice " ) are compensated. The latter terms correspond to the distinction between respects the justice especially in Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle. Taparellis natural law theory and its notions of " social welfare " and " social justice " had for the later Catholic social teaching considerable influence, including through direct student Taparellis, the future Pope Leo XIII. , the first social encyclical, Rerum Novarum wrote.

A little later, also spoke of the influential Antonio Rosmini, who, influenced among others by Taparelli, the tradition of natural law on the market developments of the modern age moved from a " giustizia sociale ", namely in the title of his pattern - Constitution, " Progetto di costituzione secondo la giustizia sociale ", a work which was also indicated for several years.

In terms of the ratio of the term " social justice " to justice forms as they were distinguished in the tradition of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, there were several interpretations. Among the recipients of the concept of social justice addition to those already mentioned Gustav Ermecke, Heinrich Pesch, Eberhard Welty, John Messner and Oswald von Nell- Breuning. In this case, mostly the reference to the common good ( bonum commune) was emphasized.

Prior to the First Vatican Council used the term " social justice " controversy and thereby condemned also by the Magisterium, while marketed as " modernism" designated views in conjunction.

In the Encyclical Quadragesimo anno (1931 ) by Pope Pius XI. attacked the papal magisterium on the concept for the first time. Oswald von Nell- Breuning declared as one of the contributors to the encyclical, that the concept of social justice within the encyclical was not yet reached complete intellectual sharpness because " actually presupposed scientific preparatory work was not yet done, but by the changes in the official church had to be stimulated usage only. " The " feat " of Pius XI. consisted in his view is to have " almost at the heart of his world Circular " made ​​social justice. This Social Justice a mere tag character was, according to Franz -Josef Bormann stripped and thus immune to ideological abuse.

The contours of the term remained in the encyclical but so vague that there is room for different emphases remained, particularly in terms of the ratio to the traditional forms of justice. Here are three interpretations have emerged. According to one view Social justice within the justice understanding of Thomas Aquinas can be located in the common good justice. According to another view Social justice ( justitia socialis ) is outside the triangle rule justice justice ( justitia legalis ), commutative justice ( justitia commutative ) and distributive justice ( distributive justice ) as equal 4 Gerechtigkeitsart or after the third view as an integral overarching generic term. Also good seventy years after the Quadragesimo anno all three interpretations will continue to be represented.

In Quadragesimo anno Social justice is used as a regulative principle for the solution of the social question:

The development of the social market economy was affected by both the Catholic social doctrine and the evangelical social ethics. The "founding fathers" of the concept of the social market economy appealed to motives and sources of theological social ethics.

Wilhelm Röpke, one of the architects of the social market economy, saw a close to Catholic social teaching, with particular reference to Quadragesimo anno containing a " perfectly with our point of view to nationwide program ."

Social justice from a Marxist perspective

As a materialist philosophy of the practice of Marxism takes over ethical postulates a critical attitude. It is assumed a " multi-layered understanding of justice by Marx and Engels ." They rejected " the existence of an ahistorical and transcendental, absolute justice so radically from ". When Marx describes capitalism as a system of coercion, slavery and exploitation, yet is nowhere injustice of capitalism or the capitalist relations of exploitation the speech; is righteous according to him, what the " given mode of production corresponding " even if the - the exploitation of human labor is based - as in the wage labor. Nevertheless, Marx formulated social justice principles for the classless society in the Critique of the Gotha Programme of the SPD, which called Andreas Wildt as " principles of communist justice." According to them, in the " Communist society [ ... ] the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be crossed in its entirety and society inscribe on its banners: From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs! " In the early writings of Marx can be found as " categorical imperative, all overturn relations in which man is a debased, enslaved, abandoned, despicable essence ". Among the later Marxist Ernst Bloch has notably with his work Natural Law and Human Dignity (1961 ) formulated " own, genuinely Marxist theory of justice ". The patriarchal and patronizing " justice from above," he opposed a company resulting from the demands of social movements " justice from below", which have been reflected for example in human rights and the welfare state.

John Rawls

John Rawls called "justice" as "the first virtue of social institutions ", so he summarizes the concept of justice in the bud in its social dimension. "Justice " is for Rawls insofar per se and social justice (and not just a disposition of individuals ). Reference point is the result of a just social order, which refers specifically to the distribution of goods as well as to achieve a balance among the partners. Rawls assumes that people possess or acquire, with a bulge to their personal pursuit of happiness " sense of justice " the disposition. A convincing theory of justice must take into account the happiness of the people from disadvantaged groups. Even the most deprived should be able to agree to the principles of a just social order. Such an order Rawls outlined in a hypothetical social contract. Any person initially does not know in this thought experiment which goods and rights are assigned to her finally, what social position they will occupy ( it is under a " veil of ignorance "). Here, everyone would want to avoid that "his enemy can assign him a place " - and, therefore, that alternative would preferred " their bad utmost result is better than any other " ( " maximin rule" ). Finally do not have to subscribe to Rawls, the parties to eg some strictly egalitarian, libertaristische or utilitarian principles, but two principles of justice that Rawls also abbreviated as equality and difference principle:

The basic liberties ( 1 in accordance with the principle of equality ) a priority (compared to unequal distributions, as they are limited permissible by 2 ). Fundamental freedoms may be restricted only if less freedom the overall system of freedoms for all and strengthens for those affected is acceptable. Both principles of justice ( 1 and 2 ) according to Rawls a priority over performance and utility maximization, according to which every opportunity inequality needs to improve the chances of the disadvantaged and a high savings rate must have a mitigation of the burden of those affected the result. In an early article Rawls formulates the difference principle in the version that the " distribute social and economic inequalities as " are, " they are probably both (a) to everyone's advantage, and ( b ) forward positions and offices that are equally all are open. " Both clauses (a and b ) leave but, as Rawls, different interpretations:

Amartya Sen

The economist Amartya Sen and social philosopher Martha Nussbaum have developed the capability approach, which is discussed in terms of the justice of development, gender and social policy. This proposal considers the issue of social justice is defined based on the question what a person for skills needed to make his life successful. The proponents of this theory connect the idea of social justice with a full-bodied concept of freedom. Central themes are about health care or educational opportunities of underprivileged sections of society.

Michael Walzer

The American political philosopher Michael Walzer assumes that goods produced in human society and in different social contexts ( "spheres" so-called ) are on different principles, eg according to merit, need or free exchange, distributed. Here, a universal and abstract justice would the different social contexts does not do justice to produce different " goods". As different social contexts he identifies, among other "spheres" to the achievement of welfare and security, money and goods, education, political power, community, kinship and love, and so on. In the company would be in these different " spheres of justice " (the title of his book from 1983 ) develop "complex" equality notion different forms of justice and overall. Thus, it may be just to distribute benefits according to need and in the economic system performance according to merit in the health system.

Wolfgang Merkel and Mirko Krück

A working group commissioned by the Friedrich -Ebert -Stiftung, developed from four contemporary theories of justice (F. A. von Hayek, John Rawls, Michael Walzer and Amartya Sen) as "principles" for "social justice"

  • The uniform distribution of the means of access to basic necessities for the individual to develop crucial life chances and
  • The strengthening of individual skills that protect, secure and extend personal autonomy, dignity, freedom of choice, life chances and variety of options.

From these two principles are five dimensions of " social justice " derived:

This understanding of social justice is strong on the just ( here: equal ) directed distribution of access opportunities. Subsequent redistribution by passive welfare state measures are less likely to break down class structures to expand life opportunities and avoid poverty traps. Nevertheless Join poverty, it is, however, by ex post redistribution to fight with high political preference because poverty damaged individual autonomy and dignity of human beings and can become a trap for future generations in poor families.

James Buchanan

The 1985 by James M. Buchanan published together with Geoffrey Brennan theory of social justice focuses more so than Rawls on justice rule. Standard of righteousness are neither ethical nor instances in distribution profiles, but only in the process of constitution making and constitutional development. Actions are therefore just, when they follow the rules, which in turn correspond to higher rules; the rule hierarchy ultimately leads to "constitution" in which the " reasonable expectations " of the individuals are sets within a society by consensus.

Walter Eucken

The substantiated by Walter Eucken governance no longer locates the fairness problem in the swap file, but moved it to the General Regulations for the economic process. Due to the competitive order " central moral ideas such as freedom, equality, solidarity and peace be realized " should. After Hans G. Nutzinger recognizes Eucken " not only the usefulness of an over commutative justice beyond the concept of social justice that he sees the main part of the solution the problem of justice secured just by the appropriate regulatory design of the competitive process " and also advocates also corrective surgery in the distribution of income and wealth distribution.

Friedrich August von Hayek

As a content- empty slogan evaluated Friedrich August von Hayek "social justice" in his book The Illusion of social justice from 1976, this is the first major philosophical work on this issue according to estimates by Otfried Hoffe.

The attention that has found Hayek's criticism in the social science literature, mostly concentrated on his rejection of the idea of ​​social justice in terms of distributive justice. In a market economy, as Hayek, it can only give a rule of justice. Since no one in a market economy distributing income, it is nonsensical to speak of just or unjust distribution. There are no criteria by which an equitable distribution could be measured for the results of the market process. Such a justice scale was logically applied, in which a central authority, the distribution of goods and arranging duties, which, however, Hayek, would amount to a total totalitarian control of society and a paralysis of the economic processes only in a centrally planned economy. But even in such an economic order could only any particular idea of ​​" social justice " be enforced and well made ​​little an overarching consensus on the " socially just " distribution. " Social justice " is therefore, as Hayek, " a quasi- religious superstition of the kind that we should let him respectfully in peace as long as he makes only his supporters happy, but we have to fight, if he becomes a pretext against other people use force " Would the name of" " required government intervention. social justice, it does so mostly to enforce privileges of certain groups or individuals. However, privileges freedom is the core requirement for a just rule of procedure. However, relief is to organize at least there politically, where the autonomous initiative failed; in prosperous societies subject such help legitimately above the physical subsistence level. Hayek stresses that it not go to the correction of alleged injustices of the market processes.

Controversies

A point of contention is the question of the universality or community bondage of ideas of justice. While Rawls starts from generally applicable conditions for just societies, which are reflected mainly in fair procedures, rather communitarian oriented philosophers such as waltzes are of the opinion that justice perceptions are often implicit and tied to local communities. Especially in the context of trade liberalization and the increase in cross- border economic relationships, these issues have acquired a particular poignancy. The aim here is to explore how the philosophical and social foundations of global social justice prove to be viable in order to supplement or even replace national pooling and solidarity can.

Another controversy lies in the relationship between freedom and social justice. The liberal political philosopher Isaiah Berlin, freedom primarily intended as a negative freedom, emphasizes the difficult decisions (hard choices ) between freedom and social justice. Other theorists who are more likely in a republican tradition, as Amartya Sen, emphasize that social justice in terms of equal opportunities and empowerment must be seen as a prerequisite for a substantial exercise of individual freedom.

After Harald Jung Hayek had attacked the " illusion of social justice " in the context of a one-dimensional version of historical justice. Unlike Hayek in his welfare state critical plea were accepted The Road to Serfdom in 1944, the origin of the term lies Social justice is not in the "socialist utopia " as " socialists in all parties " but in going back to Aristotle multidimensional understanding of justice on the about Emil Brunner Occidental idea of ​​justice with respect took. The social scientist Jörg Reitzig locates Hayek's critique of the term " social justice " in a general attack of neoliberal theory to the concept of social justice. For the sociologist Albert Hirschman, the discursive exclusion of the possibility of social justice is a key element of the " rhetoric of reaction " designated by him as dar.

Use of the term in political discourse

The concept of social justice is what is used very frequently in public debates, but rarely precisely defined. Generate policy-makers and represent certain notions of social justice. The term is usually positive connotation in political disputes therefore claim the representatives of different and even contradictory positions the label social justice for themselves. According to the labeling position serves as a socially unjust disqualification of unpopular positions. The demand for " social justice " does not lie in the opinion of Rolf Kramer often the will to justice, but to a redistribution to a better and fairer distribution of wealth based.

Use in Germany

The concept of "social justice " an early entrant in the German Empire at the time of the Weimar Republic ( 1918-1933 ) and was, for example, declared by the German Centre Party as a political objective. The Weimar Constitution of 19 July 1919, in the fifth section, which regulated economic life, for the first time extensive " social rights " enshrined in a constitution. The concept of "social justice " also was established after the Second World War in the Federal Republic of Germany in the form of the welfare state postulate that, in addition except through eternity clause of constitutional amendments, a " social state " and a " social state of law " stipulates.

Social justice is, according to the Konrad -Adenauer -Stiftung to the basic values ​​in the concept of the social market economy. Social justice is an important value for the population as well as public debates on the issue in the community, according to polls.

In the political discussion in Germany, the term is increasingly used again since the Agenda 2010 and the Hartz IV laws and is in the welfare-state debate among others, the desire for a higher degree of social equality and social security. Currently, the term also appears, for example, in the discussion about the unequal distribution of income expectant and the bank bailouts. While the critics of this development see as a result of an increasing social injustice, is referred to by some proponents of this criticism as " envy debate" and rejected. The use of the term also thereby leading to a political dispute between the parties in accordance with the right-left axis of the party system. Since the results of the PISA studies have shown that social background often has a decisive effect in Germany on educational opportunities, in particular also discusses the question of social justice in the education system.

Dimensions of social justice

Lutz Leisenring comes after analysis of the public debate on the German welfare state, to the conclusion that there are four paradigms of social justice:

In material inequalities are not necessarily social injustices, this depends on the underlying concept of justice. Income inequalities are unjust only if we understand social justice as equality of results. According Leisering the paradigm of participatory justice is increasingly gaining in importance in the current debates and solves the classic, geared to the results of the distribution from understanding social justice. According to Stefan Liebig the issues of responsiveness in the classical sense, however, being by no means obsolete. The protection against market failure, the security against non-self -inflicted emergencies and ensuring a certain minimum living standards remain important requirements. In contrast, for example, need to hedge families in such a state deficiency guarantee does not happen necessarily, but it tied to it also expectations for appropriate consideration.

Achievement of social justice in different welfare state models

After Wolfgang Merkel has a division in the presence of yield " three worlds of welfare capitalism ", which have occurred in the real world in a combined form, but nevertheless clearly be distinguished from each other by characteristic structural features:

  • " Marginal Anglo-Saxon model " with the " selective welfare principle " as a feature,
  • " Social State of continental Europe " with the " insurance principle " as a feature and
  • " Universalist model of Scandinavia " with the " tax-financed civic supply " as a feature.

Germany

In the Federal Republic of Germany social justice is seen as the ideal goal derived from the welfare state idea of ​​Article 20, paragraph 1 of the Basic Law endeavor of social policy. A citizen is to earn a livelihood participation in the material and spiritual goods of the community be guaranteed. In particular, will also aim to ensure a reasonable minimum security to keep a self-determined life in dignity and self-respect.

For derived from the welfare state principle obligation of the State to a just social order to the legislature is entitled to a broad margin of discretion.

According to the Children's Fund UNICEF child poverty in Germany is growing faster than in most other industrialized countries. In addition to the PISA studies, other international comparative education studies (see eg Euro Student Report, UNICEF study: Educational Disadvantage in Rich Nations ) Germany on the rearmost ranks with regard to social justice.

The Bertelsmann Foundation published a study in January 2011, is seen in the "Social Justice " as participatory justice. In this " every individual is actually equal opportunities for fulfillment through targeted investment in the development of individual, abilities (capabilities ) guarantee. " It is in contrast to a " equalitarian " distributive justice or a formal rule of justice about Germany comes here in the OECD countries in the midfield. Were particularly criticized, inter alia, the high child poverty, the strong social disadvantage in the education system, as well as inadequate funding of long-term unemployed.

International Activities

The February 20 was appointed by the General Assembly of the United Nations for the World Day of Social Justice and committed for the first time in 2009.

741011
de