Species diversity

Biodiversity, also called species diversity, is a measure of the diversity of biological species within a habitat or geographic area and thus the diversity of flora and fauna. It is a measure for characterizing the biodiversity of an area.

9.1 Convention on Biological Diversity meeting in Nagoya

Biodiversity and biodiversity

The diversity of species is part of the Biodiversity or biological diversity. Biodiversity includes not only the diversity of species and genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. The term biodiversity is commonly used as a synonym for biodiversity, because biodiversity is probably the clearest form of biodiversity. For example, the International Day for Biological Diversity in the German language is often referred to as the International Day of Biodiversity.

Described species

In Global Biodiversity Assessment, commissioned by the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1995 created, specified for the planet as a whole a number of around 1.75 million species described. This number is only an estimate. A detailed list does not exist. Nowadays, we described species with a total of over 2 million. The exact number of described species specify will never be possible because

Many species have been described many times, and the scientific synonyms are eliminated in the course of time and
Many supposedly uniform taxa molecular genetic separated into several species, but many have not yet assigned a name are (so-called cryptic species ). The prokaryotes are based all modern species concepts, and thus the very high numbers of species referred to in recent times, on distinguishable only by genetic analysis forms. To what extent and in animal and plant species molecular genetic distinct, but morphologically identical taxa are accepted as a species depends greatly on the particular scientific concept of species.

Taxonomists therefore often distinguish between " nominal species " (number of names) and " valid species " (number of real units ). So are some of the fish currently more than 50,000 nominal species described; accepted it is currently advisable 31,000 valid species (as of 2009). Most synonyms go back on the early pioneering days of the taxonomy. Of the newly described species since about 1970, only a vanishing fraction proved to be a synonym.

Currently, around 260,000 species of vascular plants are ( possibly 400,000: Govaerts 2001 ) around 50,000 species of vertebrates and about 1 million species of insects described (estimates: Nielsen & Mound: 865,000 species) are 240000-330000 species known (estimates from the seas: 242,000 species in the Global Biodiversity Assessment, 230,000 species according to Bouchet, 318,000 species after Reaka - Kudla ). About 51 percent of all species on Earth today are described insects and about 14 percent among the vascular plants. The rest of around 35 percent ( about 700,000 species) form the other animal and plant organisms, including all single-celled organisms and all vertebrates.

Currently, 4,500 Prokaryontenarten (bacteria and archaea ) have been described, that is, they have received a scientific name according to the rules of nomenclature. But is questionable for many microbiologists, whether derived from the description of plant and animal species, species definition is applicable to prokaryotes (see physiological species concept in bacteria ). After the phylogenetic species concept, there is no bacterial species (Ernst Mayr ).

One can divide the number of species after habitat: Of the currently described about two million species, around 78 per cent live on the mainland, 17 percent water and about 5 percent (about 100,000 species ) live as parasites or symbionts in other organisms ( the latter figure depends heavily on the definition of parasitism and symbiosis from ). To marine biodiversity, the project Census of Marine Life has provided important new insights.

Estimates of the total number of species on earth

The global total number of species was estimated in the past two decades strongly vary between 3.6 million to 112 million. The estimated values were extrapolated described on the basis of the mid-1990s, around 1.75 million species. A detailed overview of the former state estimator is again the Global Biodiversity Assessment 1995, to which more recent estimates have been developed in recent years for many subgroups. A more recent overview has not been worked out.

Some widely quoted estimates:

In 1982, Terry L. Erwin published a study on beetle species, which he had found on a tropical tree species ( Luehea seemannii ) in Panama. He took a total of about 1,200 species of beetle, of which he rated as 163 host-specific (that is, they should live only on L. seemannii ). By extrapolating to the (estimated) 50,000 tropical tree species and the proportion of beetles in the total fauna he extrapolated a total of 30 million arthropod species in the tropical forest canopy. The work of Erwin has been widely criticized. Many colleagues are of the opinion that he has the share of specialized types overstated. Using the same approach as they come to 5-7 million species.
Grassle and Maciolek extrapolated from the number of benthic species from samples that they had won with a gripper from the deep sea floor, on the number of species of benthic macro-organisms (eg molluscs, polychaetes, crustaceans ) on the sea floor as a whole. They came to the 10 million species. Her approach has been widely criticized as excessive.
Hawksworth estimated in 1991, the worldwide number of fungal species by extrapolation of the (very well researched ) British numbers on the (usually insufficiently explored ) rest of the world and so came to about 1.5 million species of fungi. In fact, however, described only about 70,000 fungal species worldwide.
Stork and Gaston tried, the number of species of insects from the relatively well explore the number of species of butterflies ( butterfly ) extrapolate. In England, 67 butterfly species and 22,000 other insect species. With 15,000 to 20,000 worldwide butterflies located approximately 4.9 to 6.6 With millions of insect species would result in total.
Numerous researchers, including, for example, May, make the largely unknown, but probably very high number of species of parasitic species attentive. If any free-living species would accommodate a specific parasitic protozoa and nematode, you would have already tripled the number of species found elsewhere.
According to a study of 2011 live 8.7 million species of organisms on Earth. Of these, 6.5 million live on land and 2.2 million in the oceans. These figures come from the " Census of Marine Life ", the scientist is using a new method of pedigree analysis succeeded the most accurate ever made estimate of the number of species.

The actual number of living species on Earth is all serious estimates, by far higher than the number of currently described. Almost all researchers agree but agreed that useful numerical values are currently hardly be stated. All estimates are in an extreme way on the estimated values for the tropical rain forests, for which far too little reliable data. Gaston and May make, for example, points out that in all " developing countries " of the earth together only about 6% of taxonomists working. At the same time points for taxonomists also be deleted in the rich nations, so that only half ironically, some have proclaimed the taxonomists themselves to be an endangered species. Moreover hinder well-intentioned regulations on the ownership of species as a result of the Convention on Biological Diversity in the research, because some states also view previously unknown species as their property and hinder the investigation. For some groups of animals serious indications exist that some estimates could be far too high under certain circumstances. Lambshead and Boucher suspect about that the number of marine nematodes, which has been partly estimated at about 10 million species ( one can even find few details of 100 million ), is much lower ( less than one million, possibly even lower.) Indeed described are ( in 2001) 26 646 species.

The suspected by the insects next largest groups in species numbers are the fungi, algae and perhaps the nematodes and arachnids. The vertebrates fall not significant in the total number of species. It is estimated the total number of species of mammals at around 4,000, the. The birds on 8500-9500 About 3 birds are here described as new each year. Although still occasionally large mammal species are described ( as in 1991 and 1993, a whale with the Vu Quang ox, a large mammal ), significant new discoveries are to be expected here any more.

Today, it is more of the total number of species on Earth of about 5 (up to maybe 20 ) million species. Among the most renowned academic experts Nigel Stork has submitted an estimate of 5 to 15 million. Robert May estimates - with many reservations - be it possibly to 20 million. A central database for all types systematized does not yet exist. The total number also depends very much on what is seen in the groups of organisms as a kind and depends on the species concept. Around 12000-25000 species are newly described ( the long-term average is just over 13,000 ), many of them often later prove to be synonyms for already described species per year. Respect, one also distinguishes between so-called " nominal species " and " valid species ". The latter are the accepted each after critical review by appropriate specialists "good species ". In many cases the Arttrennung is now carried out by means of molecular genetic studies, or at least supplemented by them.

A separate problem is the number of " types " in prokaryotes. The usual microbiological methods are worthless here, because after a rough investigation was to cultivate and increase less than 1% in natural samples detected (after genome) species of bacteria in the usual culture media. Through a species definition that strains with a genetic similarity defined (after of recombination ) of less than 70% of species, and extrapolations from soil samples analogous to the above examples, Dykhuizen came to one billion bacteria 2005. This number should perhaps be understood rather than the extent of our ignorance.

Biodiversity in different countries

Germany

From the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany 4,105 higher plant species ( vascular plants ) are known. According to an estimate by Völkl and view 2004 44.787 multicellular animal species are documented. Of these, 38 370 arthropod species, among which the insects with 33 305 species make up the majority. For Germany a total of only 706 vertebrate species are occupied. In international comparison, the flora and fauna of Germany is considered to be very well known. Nevertheless, every year new species are found or even rewritten in Germany still. However, the diversity of species in Germany, particularly in the agriculturally intensively used regions such as North West Germany as part of the intensification of agriculture declines sharply. This is particularly evident at the birds of open fields as partridge, skylark and corn bunting.

Switzerland

The total number of species in Switzerland in 2011 was estimated at about 60,000. A study in the zoo of Basel was in the grounds over 3,100 directly determinable species, with the non-quantified directly their number was estimated at 5,500 there.

Types of threat and extinction of species

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN) in 2007 were around 12 % of the species of birds, 20 % of mammals, 29 % of amphibians and 33% of gymnosperms as threatened under the plants. These 4 groups are also the only ones whose threat status is based on the assessment of all or at least the majority of species. Of the other groups (eg, fish, insects, angiosperms ) has been evaluated worldwide, so do not let the threat numbers found extrapolated to the whole group statistically only a relatively small percentage. For example, only in 1255 relatively conspicuous insect species described from the approximately 1 million ( and many undescribed ) species of insects have been checked, so that on the threat status of the insect as a whole of all kinds not a realistic proposition is feasible.

The "Living Planet Index " of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) stated in May 2008 that biodiversity has fallen on Earth 1970-2005 by 27 percent. Were particularly affected, according to these surveys land and freshwater inhabitants in the Asia -Pacific region. Some 34,000 species are threatened with extinction, according to WWF.

In many cases, the current extinction of species with the great mass extinctions of the past is compared. Paleontologists traditionally distinguished during the past 600 million years, five (some even more) great extinction of species, which, however, on the one hand often but for a long time (sometimes up to millions of years ) lasted according to recent findings and on the other hand also on further phases of smaller extinctions before and after and were accompanied, as it represents only the most conspicuous deflections of the ever fluctuating species numbers. One difficulty of the analysis is that the respective fossil material is not a 1:1 image of the former species and the extinction of species, but only provides information about the fossilisierbaren under the particular conditions of the former species. Other problems that make a comparison with the situation today is difficult, for example, are often the feature poor fossil remains that it is often not possible to define truly individual species in the biological sense; often correspond to the descriptions rather whole genera or even higher systematic units. The most significant difference of previous mass extinctions to the current situation, though, is that the current extinction is caused by a single biological species, namely the people through its activities and its space and resource claim, while previous causes probably had predominantly geological or atmospheric- cosmic causes.

Causes of present-day species extinction

"The fact that the value of ecosystems and biodiversity is not previously carried out economically, is a crucial cause of the alarming destruction of nature. "

Ecological values are not yet generally used in folk or economic calculations (see Ecological Footprint ). The main causes of the current species extinction are:

The destruction of natural habitats: According to the findings of ecological research of the species richness of a habitat depends directly on its surface. If a habitat, reduced by human activities, for example by deforestation, it loses some of its species inventory. How many and what types die out, is difficult to predict in detail (relationship via so-called species-area curves that are different between different habitats ). Predictions of present-day species extinction based hardly ever on the direct detection of the extinction of individual species known, but are essentially derived from this context.
Overuse, such as overfishing, overgrazing and uncontrolled hunt collect or due to overuse degrade ecosystems. How much, have already altered ecosystems, widely regarded as natural, for example, shows Jackson the example of the Atlantic coastal waters.
Pollution: During the last 4 decades, for example, the global pesticide consumption has tripled to 2.5 million tonnes per year, 50,000 different chemicals are in use. Residues of these and other chemicals found in natural ecosystems. Impacts on natural communities are difficult to predict.
Climate change: changes in Artarealen consequence of climate change are a natural process in principle. Threatening for anthropogenic climate change is the one that ( viewed in natural periods) extreme pace of change, which could overstretch the capacity of many species. In addition, fatal interactions between climate change and habitat destruction are to be accepted. Possible refuges are not due to human usages available, or can not be reached by habitat fragmentation. In addition, the network of designated protected areas may no longer fit the modified areas of the species.
The displacement of native by invasive species: species losses caused by introduced species have devastated large scale especially island ecosystems. Pimm and others point in a classic article, for example, to the loss of bird species of the Polynesian islands by the immigrant Polynesians and the entrained with them rats out: A loss of about 2,000 bird species ( about 15 % of the world fauna) is assumed. Local can even increase biodiversity by invasive species. Scientists have observed in Central Europe and also in the North Sea, the penetration of many warmth-loving species that increasingly be established as a result of climate change. In the eastern Mediterranean species numbers increase by immigration from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to resistant which is enhanced by the warming of Mediterranean water. These phenomena are the result of global mixing of previously separate faunas and floras and lead to the homogenization and thus impoverishment worldwide.
Extinction by introduced pathogens. In recent years, it is discussed that a global observable extinction of many amphibian species, inter alia, with a clawed frogs from Africa world kidnapped pathogens that chytridiomycosis, is declining. Other well-known cases involve North American and Eurasian tree species. In general, this factor is not well known.

Local and regional biodiversity may currently well increase; this is not contrary to the extinction of species at the global level and does not mean that the global extinction of species had come to a standstill. Many wild populations on earth and in the waters have shrunk to small and very small population sizes and therefore subject to an increased risk of extinction.

Biodiversity, stability and interference

To illustrate the importance of biodiversity, different display models are propagated, including the following:

Rivet hypothesis: Each rivet an aircraft fuselage helps to hold together, thus preventing a crash of the aircraft: Each species is to maintain an ecosystem more or less important.
Passenger hypothesis: No passenger is required for the ability to fly the aircraft instead to the crew: there is therefore only a few key species.

The importance of biodiversity for the stability of ecosystems in ecological science, a topic that has been controversial for more than 80 years, the so-called " diversity- stability " controversy (reviewed in relation to modern applications, for example ). (. Grimm and Wissel found in a literature study 163 different definitions of stability, which is based on 70 concepts ) to clarify the situation has helped that the term "stability" was sharply defined today (after Pimm 1984) usually distinguished: persistence ( observed little change in observations over a long time), resilience (The system returns to disturbances back to its initial state ), resistance ( the system remains in long disorders unchanged). Research findings suggest that the temporal stability (ie persistence) with a higher number of species increases. Whether this is also true after disturbances (ie resilience ) is controversial. Perhaps the biodiversity of the resilience of a given ecosystem is only of minor importance or even drops off, this situation could be reversed at a higher level.

After the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis ( IDH ) by Joseph Connell ( University of California ), some ecosystems react to light, regular disturbances (eg, fires, storms, floods) with a growing diversity of certain types Occupied Territories are free because, due to the disorder disappear. This space can be from other (not yet present in certain cases) types (including so-called pioneer species ) to be filled. As a result, the number of species and thus biodiversity increases. However, this principle of the average fault frequency is not entirely true for any system that is not in any system that biodiversity increases owing to a failure, but can also behave contrary. The now accepted by most ecologists model on the relationship between biodiversity and disturbance is the " dynamic equilibrium model ". Thereafter, increases in highly productive ecosystems, species numbers with increasing disorder (mainly because it counteracts the exclusion of competitors ). In some production systems, however, it drops off (because the slow -growing species are more sensitive ). In highly productive systems (such as eutrophic lakes) biodiversity is even at a high level of interference is minimal ( the so-called " enrichment paradox" ).

In the past, some species could be obtained by zoos and re- breeding programs. Successful examples of the 20th century, the European bison, the David Hirsch, the Przewalski horse and since 2003 the tree lobster. However, rescue efforts for the conservation of species outside of their natural habitat (eg in zoos and botanic gardens and seed banks ) can not save them all kinds, as many animals do not breed in captivity, and capacity to enter into other species are scarce. Also, the Resettlement / reintroduction is expensive. However, the designation of protected areas (eg nature reserves ) is a good solution is ( partly with the aid of the modern instrument of the gap analysis ), which are most successful when all stakeholders can be integrated.

An instrument for nature conservation measures and careful use of natural resources in poorer countries, the Global Environment Facility ( GEF), in which pay the industrialized countries. Even the most economically viable sustainable benefits secures nature. So places such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) criteria for sustainable forest management to be used by already 150,000 km ² of forest were reported in nearly 30 countries. Condition for further success is the consumer uptake of certified (and possibly expensive) wood products.

Since 1973, the Washington Convention ( CITES) regulates international trade in endangered species of wild animals and plants and their products. At the 15th meeting of the Conference of the States ( CoP15 ) in Doha, Qatar, from 13 - 25th March 2010, the participants were able to agree either on a short-term ban on trade in bluefin tuna to the recovery of stocks to trade ban with polar bear fur or the protection of various species of sharks such as hammerhead and dogfish, some products under the names Schillerlocke, veal fish, sea eel or Seestör are also commercially available in Europe. In contrast, the trade ban on ivory was extended.

The EU wanted to achieve in 2010 the goal that no animal and plant species are more extinction in Europe. On 15 March 2010 the EU environment ministers postponed this goal in 2020 and launched a biodiversity campaign. Due to the intensification of agriculture - accelerated by the promotions of the EEG - has become very large, so that each area is heavily used, the surface pressure in parts of Germany. In northwestern Germany therefore tries to stop with different biotope -improving measures of habitat fund the Jägerschaften Emsland / Bentheim eV species extinction in the open fields.

2010 - International Year of Biodiversity

The General Assembly of the United Nations (UN ) decided in December 2006 to declare 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. She did this out of deep concern about the social, economic, environmental and cultural consequences of biodiversity loss and with the hope that States and other actors would use this opportunity to raise awareness of the importance of biodiversity and local, regional and international perform actions. Are co-ordinated the activities of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal, Canada.

Convention on Biological Diversity meeting in Nagoya

See: Nagoya Protocol

Representatives from 200 countries discussed in October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan on measures against the massive extinction of species. It should go to a new protection target by 2020 and the so-called biopiracy. Was discussed among other things the " Access and Benefits Sharing Protocol" ( about: protocol on the sharing of access to, and recovering from biological resources). Developing countries called a " gene Expensive " when companies active ingredients ( for example in the form of drugs ) market, which were obtained from their biological resources.

"This meeting is part of the effort in the world to face a very simple fact: We are destroying life on Earth"

All over the world there is a desire to

" The coming generations to leave a beautiful earth with a rich biodiversity "

Unicellular organism Landmass Zoo Basel Genus Dryococelus australis Atlantic bluefin tuna Hammerhead shark Spiny dogfish Achim Steiner Biota (ecology) Monoculture Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Handelsblatt

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