Trade

Under trade, the economic activity of the exchange of goods between economic agents in the way of goods from production is understood to consumption or use of the goods.

Conceptual history

With the further definition of trading, it is irrelevant according to Rudolf Seyffert whether this function of independent institutions ( trading companies, trading companies, actions ) or from affiliated institutions (producers trade, craft trade, agricultural trade, consumers, trade, international trade ) is satisfied.

While in early primitive societies these goods exchange as an exchange of goods for goods ( barter, barter ) took place, the developed modern monetary economies only know the trade in the form of purchase and sale of goods for money ( trading business ). Although the term " trade " (also " Kramhandel " ) appears in the 15th century, however, there until the end of the 18th century - and thus in the creation and first heyday of urban commerce as long-distance trade - behind other terms such as merchants, action, Commercien or commerce back.

Only at the beginning of the 19th century trade is understood in the narrow sense used today by the Trade Management as the commercial purchase of material goods (merchandise ) and its sale without substantial working or processing ( merchandise trade ). " Merchandise trade turnover of goods, movement of goods, movement of goods. This sales performance is the trade -determining basic function. " (Rudolf Seyffert ) Trading Company are those institutions that this basic function ( and other commercial functions) a) professional b) intended exclusively or mainly, c ) in its own name, and d) at their own expense and exercise risk. They are the specialists in procurement and sales business.

The definitions above do not yet recognize the specific importance of trade for the market economy. This is apparent in the following description: "Trade is permanent and simultaneous organization of markets for different providers of goods and procurement markets for various customers for goods and services. " ( Schenk, 2007, p.16) Thus, the trade does something Constitutive for the market economy, which no other industrial sector makes: The trade generates markets, and indeed no abstract- conceptual, but specific places of the goods and services exchanges. This is true for retailers such as for mail order and online trading with their time-and location-independent sales and procurement opportunities.

In addition to trade in a narrow sense driving institutions are commercial-like institutions involved in the exchange of goods, such as trade-related assistance commerce, trade missions, Commission agencies and commission. The term " middleman " is tautological - dealers are always active between suppliers and customers - and should be avoided.

General

Trading or commodities trading involves the purchase of goods from various manufacturers and suppliers, transport, storage and consolidation of the goods at a range of products and their sale to industrial users ( wholesale ) or to non- commercial users ( retail), without the goods much be altered or processed. The traders ( trading companies, trading companies) are active in the rule in order to make profits. The market-based performance of the entire trade as each trading operation is in the permanent design and organization of four markets ( markets, procurement markets, competitive markets and internal markets). The activities of commercial enterprises provides a productive service sui generis dar. Unlike manufacturing companies are in the trade - apart from industry-standard finishes - produced no new material goods; of pure service companies, the commercial establishments differ by storage or the goods business.

Often, the trade occurs in connection with producing activities (eg crafts stores) or services (eg securities trading ). In addition to the trade in goods trade related transactions may be operated with other goods such as capital, services or knowledge. Trading is usually scarce goods. This scarcity is among other things due to the fact that a natural raw material occurs only in some areas that production and consumption fall apart time or quantity or that certain goods are only produced by many people in a division of labor braid. With increasing globalization and differentiation of society grows, the need for the " procurement and sales specialists" are trade -organizing markets operate.

Contracts from a legal perspective among trading partners closed. A trading relationship between the partners involved in the trade. You can choose between domestic trade ( local, regional, national trade) and foreign trade ( foreign trade ) are distinguished. The country borders border trade between trading partners in the European Union counts for intra-EU trade.

Prehistory

In consideration of the prehistory and early history of trade is lack of sufficient findings on equated with the long-distance transport of goods, mostly raw materials, which do not occur naturally at the site and ( after a long time ) by archaeologists are still identifiable, such as shells or flint. According to this definition operational Homo sapiens trade for a long time. In contrast, lack of any evidence of Neanderthal use of objects from a distance of about 50 km. It can therefore be assumed that the Neanderthals lacked the ability to trade. It is believed that this difference Neanderthal affected more adversely. This may underline the importance of trade for us.

Clear evidence of action from the Neolithic represent flint roads

The first documents in human history, such as the Code of Hammurabi treat preferably property and trade, about one- third of the passages rules to trading and the treatment of slaves, a precious commodity.

History and social significance of trade

The distribution of products is not indicative of the manner of its distribution. The movement of goods between the manufacturers and the users of its products done since time immemorial trade. Traders procured and delivered the products, in early days, first as cultural distance traders. However, if it is not operated as bearers of economic goods (raw materials, resources, capital and consumer goods ) to transport goods on their own, they organized the goods. With the advanced civilizations and states consolidated themselves the long-distance trade relationships. Only in the Middle Ages, a regional and local trade began to emerge, who was involved thanks to its feudal structure and the centuries in traditional merchant families knowledge and on the expansion of the cities. The rise and fall of empires led to fluctuations in the regional and national integration. Thus existed for centuries comparatively intensive trade relations with water between the already highly differentiated jewel rich Indus civilization (2600-1900 BC) and the Sumerian culture; with the collapse of the Indus civilization broke in both their domestic trade and foreign trade. In peripheral Europe at that time a bartering is demonstrated for the Bronze Age already. Example of a prehistoric trade route is the Amber Road.

In ancient times, new and empires Minoan Crete, Phoenicians, Carthaginians (Greece / Rome Han China to the west, in the Far East ) formed along the Eurasian axle intensified the long-distance trade. For example, Chinese silk was carried to Rome, a testament to the replacement via the Silk Road. With the Eurasian migrations these columns of the long-distance trade collapsed completely or partly, in the Roman Empire it came with the collapse of the central government also to an internal de-differentiation and the collapse of many cities.

In the Eurasian High Middle Ages the realms stabilized and formed new empires (eg the vast but short-lived Mongol realms). The Eurasian long-distance trade increased again, was again intensively and systematically than in the previous phase. Europe accelerated the pace of development and gradually evolved from a peripheral region to a center. The European maritime trade in the transition from medieval to modern times became substantially from city republics (such as Venice, Genoa, Flemish and Dutch cities and Hanseatic cities) controls. At that time, the first time operated "remote buyers " to even see after the sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies as that occupational group who bring in the traditional "communities" the right purpose thinking and global " socialize " with it. Special importance came here the merchant guilds ( associations of merchants ), such as the Hanseatic League. The search for new sea routes to India and China was a major motivation for the voyages of discovery at the end of the Middle Ages and at the beginning of the modern era. So Christopher Columbus was convinced to have reached India, which had also been the ultimate goal of his journey.

With the flourishing of intent on self-sufficiency medieval towns with their own coinage and supported by the guilds own market orders, a glamorous urban retail is emerging, driven by so successful merchant dynasties such as those of the Fugger, Welser, Paumgartner and Tucher in Augsburg and Nuremberg. Only with the beginning of industrialization, there is an institutional specialization and division into wholesale and retail.

From the institutional history of the trade, the history of its institutions, activities and manifestations, the history of ideas of the trade is to be distinguished. It is traditionally less aptly called " History of Economic Thought ", because it is not dogmatic tenets, but to new viable Kaufmann knowledge and new commercial techniques in the emerging ideas in the trade - a wide field of the development of coinage and metrology or beginnings of double-entry bookkeeping to the introduction of modern technologies in the commercial as web-based global business contacts or the RFID technology. The lasting from the 16th to the late 18th century era of " action science" brought a wealth of textbooks produced, quite systematically under construction. With the later and current understanding of commercial science they had as collections of recipes and moral instructions for the merchant, however, little in common - "Books for the instruction of the merchant, books for practice" ( Eduard Weber).

The social importance of trade is extremely diverse and is subject to over the centuries various assessments. On the one hand, and quite predominantly learns the importance of trade for society positive ratings. They range from about the early care of the ( commercial ) education - only the clergy, parts of the gentry and merchants of reading, writing and arithmetic were until the invention of the printing press knowledgeable essentially - about the increasing general prosperity as well as the standardization of legal rules for business and the payment status, to the modern " democratization of consumption ". Especially the-counter retail impressed with its diverse product range and ever new "events" as " experience stage" (Karl Kaufmann) not only the style of consumption, but also largely social life, be it in the symbiosis of small and medium enterprises with department stores in the inner cities, whether by elegance and luxury in shopping malls or by favorable supply in extra-urban shopping centers. In the long-standing slogan of a department store group "The world we host " reflects the " cultural function of the trade" (Karl Oberparleiter ): procuring of direct access to consumer goods from all cultures for everyone. - On the other hand, characterizes the social assessment of trade as negative of an ongoing " tradition of prejudices " ( Schenk). Derogatory judgments about the trade and trading merchants are widespread, based mainly on the " usurious " multiplication of money and the usury of the merchants already in antiquity and the medieval doctrine of the Church Fathers ( Patristics ). In modern times, it was primarily the scientific socialism, led by the Marxist thesis of the lack of productivity of trade, and National Socialism, with its ideology of contempt against the " Jewish big business " of the department stores for a commercially hostile mood. Even the GDR economics of internal trade was in its prohibition of free pricing, recognize contempt of trading for the company in the abolition of private wholesale and disabilities in the private retail sector. But even in the presence of prejudice against " the " trade are virulent, whether in negative reports on alleged " manipulation " of the customer in a shop, in municipal interventions in the location and range of choice of commercial establishments or it was sublimated in a derogatory expression. "In the end ... will be assumed that substantial or even complete lack of prejudice to the trade must remain an illusion, both in theory and in political and everyday business practice. "

Trade languages

Remote traders who traded with foreign nations, could not communicate in their native language with the foreign merchants. This is why languages ​​have emerged that were used on the occasion of mutual understanding of trade relations. These were on the one hand languages ​​of national importance such as Farsi or Hausa, on the other hand Behelfssprachen who served exclusively the commercial use and non-native speakers possessed ( pidgin ). Known commercial languages ​​were about the lingua franca ( Sabir ) and Russenorsk.

Aspects of modern trade

The trade is one of the defining parameters for an economy. This applies equally to internal trade, such as the EU takes place within national borders or a group of states, as for the cross-border trade and the through transit trade. When goods are sold abroad, as one speaks of export, in the reverse case of import.

After the exclusive or predominant group of customers can be internal trade wholesale ( with large consumers, resellers ) differ and retail trade ( with end-users or consumers), on the degree of independence of independent and tied (vertical or horizontal cooperating ) trade. Depending on the location of the trading activity, the stationary trade from outpatient trade and from e-commerce (or e-commerce) should be distinguished.

If the export of a country to import, then one speaks of a foreign trade surplus. Exports have the advantage that money into the country "flows", but the disadvantage that it is highly dependent on the economic welfare of the countries to which you exported. So an economic crisis " spill over " into a country to another country. Also imports from so-called low-wage countries have an ambivalent effect: on the one hand, by the domestic supply are cheaper, on the other hand can the competing domestic producers lost market share appropriate. Any excess of the imports of a country 's exports, so it is called a trade deficit. Imports generally have the advantage that they acquired as goods that are not available in their own country (eg raw materials or fruits that do not grow in their own country ). However, this has the disadvantage that one makes oneself dependent on other countries and their supplies. This was particularly evident in the oil crisis, when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the deliveries of oil drastically reduced, resulting in a global energy crisis.

For an explanation of the importance and benefits of foreign trade can be one hand the concept of comparative advantage, for example, due to differences in technology ( Ricardo ) or resource endowments ( Heckscher- Ohlin theorem ), consult the other hand, the theory of imperfect competition, and many other foreign trade theories.

For an explanation of the importance and benefits of internal trade numerous concepts have been developed. As the most important are ( Schenk ): the division of labor concept, the theory of comparative advantage, the theory of comparative benefit advantages, the Schärsche law, the theory of the trade functions, the theory of markets and competitive generation, transaction theory, economic geometrical concepts and the gate keeper theory.

Overall, the modern trade is characterized by a rapid structural change and a dynamism ( " progress in commerce " ) than almost any other sector of the economy. As a conspicuous feature of this change Nieschlag Robert had described the emergence of ever new forms of operation and types, especially the retail sector as a quasi- law with " dynamics in the trade." In recent decades, the overall economic trade dynamics characterize the following breaks:

• Economic upheavals (eg, cooperation and concentration, rationalization, and operating consulting company comparison, self-service, type of differentiation, emancipation and independent trade marketing )
• Technological upheaval (eg mechanization and computerization, modernization, Electronic Commerce )
• Organizational upheaval (eg operational, inter-company and inter-company reorganization)
• Informational breaks (such as computer - controlled information gathering and utilization, intra - and inter-company use of electronic media )
• Social upheavals (eg, social commitment, flexibility, cooperative management style )

Ethical aspects

As with all human action ethical considerations are also discussed in the commercial trade. They shape, for example, fair trade called as a model of a socially and ecologically compatible trade, in which all levels of trade are from the producers to the consumers aware of ethical considerations ( "fair" in the sense of justice ) is considered, and in which - especially - agricultural producers in developing countries a fair remuneration to be granted. However, this choice of terminology is the risk that the " normal" trade as is not or less considered fairly and that " tradition of prejudice " against the trade ( Schenk) is perpetuated. Without a doubt, the modern trade management uses clever efforts psycho tactically and strategically - hedged trade marketing at to induce market participants to certain ( sale or purchase ) decisions. Handle gaps in the self-service shelves, placement cheaper products in the Bückzone, oversized shopping carts, suggestive background music and a thousand other practices we encounter daily. Such sales " tricks" but can not be, even regarded per se as ethically questionable as incapacitating manipulation, at least as long as do not like the (buying) decisions are not based on surprise attack, but to belief and freedom to deliberate decision by the buyer.

Special Trade

The term special trade is used in various meanings. In foreign trade, referred to as the Federal Statistical Office to cross- border trade of the survey area with other countries as a special trade. Abroad for the purposes of foreign trade statistics is the area outside the survey area. The territory of the foreign trade statistics include the Federal Republic of Germany (without the customs exclusion Biisingen ). In the internal trade those types of operation or operating types of trade are referred to as special trade, which is characterized by extreme specialization range (typically tend to narrow and very deep assortment), differ from other forms of operation, also by dealer. Examples would be wholesale of live fish or marine equipment wholesale and retail demand with wool or retail with baby needs.

Globalization

Today the world trade is in the context of globalization. Under the auspices of the World Trade Organization ( WTO) international customs barriers are broken down and the free movement of goods (GATT ) and trade in services ( GATS ) should be promoted. This policy of free trade is controversial; Globalization critics see it as a cementing of the disadvantage of countries in the so-called underdeveloped third world and also an impairment of sovereign administration of the States ( "loss of sovereignty ").

However, apart from the theory (see above) also has the experience proved that the international exchange of goods leads to prosperity. Thus, since the 1950s, the poverty (see there ) decreased continuously in the world, also decreased the number of people threatened by hunger. This philosophy of a free market economy, however, is often limited by crises, corruption and government intervention in the States. Instead of allowing trade many areas lock the advantages of free trade. On the other hand, some economists believe that the third world only with starting, for example through development aid, could create a rise in the first world. So infrastructures would have only developed, human capital only to be accumulated.

Today, the globalization concept has found its way into the domestic trade. Under the impact of increasing competition in the domestic and favored by modern traffic and transportation, secure payments and the global Internet communications, more and more domestic wholesale and retail companies to open up new markets worldwide. The onset in the 80 years period of " transnationalism " (UC Täger ) and internationalization ( establishment of branches in neighboring countries ) is also suitable for larger commercial enterprises, the traditional shopping already world, in a period of globalization ( via the acquisition, establishment of branches or construction of the new trading system in remote states ) passed.

About 90 percent of the general world trade and more than 65 percent of trade in petroleum were operated on by sea in 2010.