Verbal Behavior

Verbal Behavior is the title of a book by Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Verbal Behavior was published in 1957 and is a theoretical analysis of verbal behavior from the scientific point of view of behavior analysis. Linguistic behavior, as Skinner ( 1957), the same regularities as other behavior as well. Linguistic behavior is characterized in that it is not amplified directly, but only indirectly through other people's behavior by the physical environment.

The book is considered one of the greatest works of behaviorism. Nevertheless Verbal Behavior is considered in psychology, especially historical perspective, the actual content of the book is hardly noticed. A translation of the book into German has not yet been published. Almost as well known as Verbal Behavior itself is the review of the book by the linguist Noam Chomsky in 1959, which is regarded as one of the initial sparks of cognitivism in psychology and launched the so-called cognitive turn.

• 5.1 Pure verbal operant 5.1.1 The Mand
• 5.1.2 The Tact
• 5.1.3 The Intra Verbal
• 5.1.4 The Echoic
• 5.1.5 The textual
• 5.1.6 The Autoclitic

• 8.1 original
• 8.2 secondary literature

• 9.1 General
• 9.2 reception

Overview

Skinner initially defined linguistic behavior and explains the application of behavior analytic conceptual apparatus to the field of language. Then will detail the different types of verbal operants (which are the units of linguistic behavior ) are presented and explained. The generalization and discrimination of linguistic behavior causes the formation of new and more complex forms of linguistic behavior. Places special emphasis on the multi-causal Skinner causation of speech acts: Verbal behavior is rarely caused by one of the processes described by Skinner alone, even to the variables of the linguistic behavior of controlling more than one behavior. Under the heading Autoklitisches behavior described Skinner as one's own linguistic behavior of the speaker controls the linguistic behavior. Last Skinner describes the self-control of linguistic behavior, ie how the linguistic behavior of the speaker through his different behavior is controlled. It summarizes Skinner also thinking as behavior.

Skinner performs much here, what he only touches on in science and human behavior (original Science and Human Behavior ). However, the book contains no new laws of behavior that served only the explanation of linguistic behavior. The only new terms, which introduces Skinner, are the basic verbal operants ( Mand and Tact, echoisches and textuales, intra- verbal behavior as well as the Autoclitic ). In epistemological terms Verbal Behavior is therefore an economical theory. Skinner illustrates his assumptions in the course of the book with many hundreds of examples.

An understanding of the content of Verbal Behavior is without a basic knowledge of behavior analysis very difficult (although Skinner writes an easy to read English ). In particular, the attempt with the traditional understanding of the phenomenon to understand Verbal Behavior Language in mind fails because the behavioral science approach here is rather counter- intuitive. Also, this article can only give a brief insight into the topic. Especially Skinner's explanation more complex linguistic behavior is beyond the scope of an encyclopedia entry.

Requirements

Skinner is one of the founders of behavior analysis. In Verbal Behavior, he turns to the data obtained in experiments on animals and humans insights of behavioral analysis on the linguistic behavior.

Behavior subject from the behavioral analysis approach to the control of the environment, or in other words: behavior is shaped by the ( current and past ) environment of the organism. It is important to distinguish between the

• Stimulus Control - What the impact of all events in the environment of the organism is meant to take place chronologically before the behavior, ie the preceding conditions the behavior ( antecedents )

And the

• Amplifier control - thus the influence of the behavior over time following environmental events is meant, that the consequences of the behavior ( Consequences ).

Using the ABC model ( the "B" stands for Behavior, so behavior), the shape and the frequency response will be explained:

We speak here also of the Dreifachkontingenz (three -term- contingency ) of behavior. In simple terms, the key message of this model rewrite as: behavior of conditions precedent ( the situation, the stimuli) triggered and consequences ( amplifiers) maintained.

The concept of control is to the misconception occasion that the organism from the perspective of behavior analysis behaves as it were mechanically and externally controlled. However, Skinner emphasizes the activity of the organism: the ( operant ) behavior of the organism is the starting point. Skinner puts it in the introduction as follows:

"Men act upon the world, and change it, and are changed in turn by the Consequences of Their action. "

" People behave in the world and change it. In return, they are changed by the consequences of their actions. "

Definition

• Skinner defined verbal behavior as behavior which does not act directly on the physical environment, but only by the behavior of another human being has an effect ( " Behavior Which is effective only through the mediation of other persons", p.2). If anyone is thirsty, he can get a glass of water or say something to another person, "Please give me some water ." The latter behavior ( to say " Please give me water") will only result in a gain if someone else ( a listener ) does something ( brings water ). The listener has to have been on the reinforcement of linguistic behavior (not necessarily explicit) trained, so he must be members of the same linguistic community as the speaker.

An example shows how far Skinner's definition is adopted: A pigeon that has learned in a behavioral science experiment, pecking at a switch when a green disc is visible, is also not directly amplified by the physical environment, but from a " listener to strengthen ", the experimenter who has been trained to the behavior of the pigeon in the given case ( by a cud gives her, for example ). The pecking of the pigeon is thus a linguistic behavior.

Against Skinner's definition is sometimes argued that it does not allow to distinguish linguistic behavior of other social behavior. In addition, information on the learning history of a person other than the speaker is required ( ie the listener ) to apply the definition. However, a clear definition of linguistic behavior is ( according to Matthew Normand ) as little as possible of aggressive behavior. Skinner's central message is that linguistic behavior is not significantly different from other behaviors. If the definition in addition to what you normally perceives as a language, also some cases includes that would rather call social behavior of the layman, so this is not a defect.

From Skinner's definition also shows that linguistic behavior not to a specific shape (or a medium ) is limited. The most common form of linguistic behavior is speaking ( vocal performance), which also has the least impact on the physical environment ( rarely, as Skinner, it is possible to make by speaking to collapse the walls of Jericho or stop the sun in its course, p.2). Then there are the various forms of written language and sign language; also languages ​​in which the "speaker" the skin of the " listener " touched, there are ( Lormen ). Audible forms of linguistic behavior can also be the clapping of hands ( in the theater ) or the blowing of a horn ( in battle ). Even the man at the telegraph behaves according to Skinner linguistically, when he moved his hand, as well as who indicated on panels with words - always assuming that this behavior alters the behavior of another person.

Skinner differentiates itself with this definition of the linguistic point of view on the problem language from: linguists deal with the rare linguistic behavior (or the linguistic act ) of a single person, but they usually (ie the abstracted linguistic behavior of many people ) examine languages. Traditionally, it is also assumed that linguistic behavior ( as well as other behavior ) can only be explained by events within the organism: Language thus serves to " ideas " (or "meaning" or "Information" ) express. Skinner, however, sees the "meaning" of what is said outside the body ( in the relations between environmental events and behavior). Skinner's view of language has therefore been compared to that of Ludwig Wittgenstein ( " The meaning of a word is its use in the language ").

Basics

The verbal operant - The unit of linguistic behavior

Verbal behavior occurs as a river: it must be divided into units for the purpose of investigation. The traditional units of word, sentence, etc. here would offer itself. However, Skinner needed a unit that is uniquely identifiable and certain independent variables in a functional (ie, rule-based ) connection is. The behavior analyst sets ( the operant ), which he studied, not from the outset the unity of behavior, but whether they ( eg environment variables) occurs as a function of some other variable. That, in the case of verbal operant mean that this unit both such a small feature such as an emphasis or a single volume as well as a complete phrase or sentence (such as " what you can do today that will not put off until tomorrow " ) can be. - Always assuming the verbal operant varies with another variable, that is, it is with her in a functional relationship. For example, if the setting or omission of an accent causes the linguistic behavior is reinforced or not, then the accent is the relevant unit of analysis. This of course contradicts strongly the practice in linguistics. However, this definition is of verbal operant ( every piece of linguistic behavior that is functionally related to another variable ) is a consequence of the transfer of the methods of behavior analysis to the range of linguistic behavior.

Verbal operants are not synonymous with words. Rather, they are individual behavior of a particular individual in a particular context. "Words", however, are elements of an abstract system language. Unlike many linguists Skinner does not believe that is acquired a meaning with the word, but that each linguistic behavior has unique preceding conditions and consequences. Each verbal operant must therefore be individually viewed as the product of a particular situation, as a function of the environmental conditions that control whether and when the operand is expressed. The ability of a child, " biscuit" to tell when the child sees the cookie ( this statement referred Skinner Tact ) is, " biscuit" to say the ability when it is hungry (from Skinner called Mand ), different. The verbal operants are therefore functionally independent (even if its shape is similar ). The assumption Skinner that verbal operant be independently acquired functional, has been confirmed experimentally in many cases now. Also speaking skills and listening ( to understand ) are functionally independent of each other.

A further investigation unit is the linguistic repertoire. Thus, the potential behavior is referred to the speaker. However, it is equally absurd to ask where a verbal operant is, if it is not expressed, as to ask where the patellar reflex is when he is not fired.

The probability of occurrence

Some verbal operants occur with greater probability than others. The probability (in terms of frequency of occurrence ) of a verbal operant in a particular situation is the decisive factor in the study of linguistic behavior. What is meant is not the probability that, for example, at some point a certain word is said (as they find themselves in as word frequency lists), but the probability of occurrence at a specific time, in a particular situation. This is also called the strength of an operant.

Verbal operants

Skinner sees linguistic behavior in the context of the ABC model as determined by previous conditions (A as antec dents ) and the ensuing consequences ( such as C Consequences ). He identifies four different previous conditions for linguistic behavior:

• A state of deprivation or aversive stimulation, or a specific operation establishing itself ( according to Jack Michael ). The concept of establishing itself surgery is preferable to the " motivational state" also used by Skinner, since it suggests no references to internal states of the organism as a cause of the behavior, and is also broader.
• The characteristics of the physical environment.
• The linguistic behavior of others.
• The own linguistic behavior.

In contrast, there are two possible consequences:

• Consequences that are specific to a particular form of deprivation or a specific aversive state, establishing itself an operation and are directly effective ( direct impact on the speaker ).
• Social (or " educational" ) consequences (ie, the reaction of the audience, such as "True " or "Yes", etc.).

Verbal behavior is controlled by a certain combination of conditions precedent and consequences. This combination defines a verbal operant. Skinner distinguishes the pure verbal operant of the multiple control.

Pure verbal operant

The Mand

A verbal operant, which usually has in a language community, a certain consistency in the environment of the speaker result is referred to by Skinner with the portmanteau Mand. He runs this term of words such as demand ( demand ) and command ( command ) from.

• A Mand is a verbal operant, which is amplified only by a particular consequence and thus is under (functional ) control the associated motivational states or establishing itself ends operations.

In the ABC model, the Mand can be described as:

• A: The previous condition of Mand is establishing itself a particular operation.
• B: The Mand
• C: The consequence of Mand must be specific.

Example:

One person says the fast-food: "Once French red-white " and gets this too.

• A: The person Hunger ( motivational state) or put some time no food ( establishing itself surgery).
• B: " Once a French red-white. "
• C: The person gets a portion of chips red-white.

The linguistic behavior "Once French red-white " in this case is a Mand, since it is presupposes a certain establishing itself surgery and reinforced only by a particular consequence: The behavior of "Once French red-white " will in future only be in similar situations ( so, for example, on the same food stand ) occur more frequently when there may be a certain consequence ( the French red-white ) is amplified ( but not if another consequence occurs, the person here, for example, no chips red - gets white).

" Designated " A Mand the desired gain: " salt"! " Listen," " Stop! "! " Say yes ," etc. denote the desired behavior of the listener! " More soup " or referred to the amplifier as such.

The Tact

The own linguistic behavior and linguistic behavior of others is one of the main triggers for linguistic behavior. Skinner treated these cases as echoische, textual and intra verbal operant. Two types of stimuli are usually non-verbally: the ( presence of) the audience and the entire physical environment.

Skinner used for the case that the physical environment is a triggering stimulus for a linguistic behavior, the concept of tact. He derives the word from the "contact" ( contact), in which the individual with the environment occurs.

A tact is defined as a verbal operand, wherein a specific behavioral response induced by a particular shape by a certain object, a characteristic of an object or event in the environment of the speaker, or at least enhanced.

In the ABC model can be the Tact described as follows:

• A: The foregoing condition is the presence of a certain stimulus (e.g., object). The state of the organism or establishing itself operations are not relevant in this case.
• B: The Tact.
• C: The consequence is a non-specific, social reinforcement of tact. While the Mand "Once French red-white " is enhanced only by very specific consequence, a tact is maintained by generalized amplifiers.

Example:

A child sees a doll and says " doll ".

• A: The presence of a doll.
• B: " doll ".
• C: The mother praised the child (or smiles it to or further talks with him - the amplifier is non- specific or a generalized amplifier).

The Tact is not the same as the reference of a word. A word that refers to a particular speakers can also be used in situations where there is no tact. For example, refers to the word " Eisenhower " to a man of that name. It can only be a tact when man Eisenhower is present. If Eisenhower is not present, is " Eisenhower " A Textual, an intra Verbal or Echoic. " Eisenhower " is triggered in each case by a stimulus, only there except the people Eisenhower many other possible stimuli. Man Eisenhower does not have ( or internalized, "driven back into the organism ," as Chomsky writes ) in any way ( mentally or hypothetically ) be present when someone " Eisenhower " says.

The intra Verbal

The intra Verbal is a linguistic behavior that is triggered by other linguistic behavior, in the form but not the same as the linguistic behavior of the other. Examples of intra Verbal are the answers to questions like " Where do you live? ", " What is two plus two? " Or the continuation of a sentence such as " Unity and justice and ... ".

Intra Verbal behavior is often quite simple, for example, if the stimulus " How are you? " The usual response is "Thank you, good! " Follows. " Small Talk " is largely intra- verbal behavior. But there are also interesting cases, such as when the answer to " Why? " Is a sentence, which almost always starts with " Because ... ". When a longer poem is recited, controls a part of each one after. If the speaker is interrupted, he loses control. Such level applies to reciting the alphabet, counting and simple addition and multiplication.

The Echoic

The Echoic is a linguistic behavior that is triggered by other linguistic behavior, the form of behavior similar to that included linguistic behavior of the other. Echoisches behavior is repetition of what is heard (or parts thereof) by the speaker. This usually happens without the speaker was to explicitly asked ( "Say: XY !"): It would then not be a pure Echoic, but an intra - Verbal Echoic (ie the multiple control of linguistic behavior ). The Echoic usually closes immediately adjacent to the hearing. Fragmentary echoisches behavior occurs when the speaker has an aspect of the language of the other takes over, about his accent or mannerism. Often we whisper when the other whispers, even without that we know the reason for the whisper of the other.

Explicitly Request a echoischen reaction by another is only one possibility as to why such reactions are shown: the claim ( "Say: puppy " ) to comply ( " Dog"), leads to the positive reaction of the other ( "Yeah, right! " ) or to terminate a aversive situation (the other stop it, ask the speaker to repeat the utterance ). Just think of foreign language teaching: Whoever manages to imitate the strange sounds of the teacher who is "saved " and no longer available for the time being the focus of their attention.

But there are also less explicit forms of reinforcement echoischen behavior. It is reinforced for the repetition of linguistic behavior from time to time, for example, if the words used someone else in conversation, repeatedly: . These linguistic forms are often more effective than our own words to make the other understand something Echoische reactions are also often used as a filler, which facilitates an answer, as if the candidate once again repeated the words of the examiner before he answers the question: The aversive situation of having to find a response, so temporarily avoided. Echoische reactions also help to keep the heard better serve ( for example, if one repeats a part number ) or to require the other to repeat a statement or to explain ( " dog? What dog ?").

The textual

The textual is a vocal response, (e.g., a text) is under the control of a non- verbal auditory stimulus and is triggered by it. The acquisition textualen behavior usually happens in the educational context: A person is generalized conditioned amplifier (eg, praise ) when a vocal response of the learner stands in a certain relation to the characters on the page. Is maintaining the textual behavior through the many collateral effects of reading. Textuales behavior is automatically reinforced, since the reader from reading many advantages pulls ( be warned for example from danger, attention is drawn to other amplifiers, etc. ). In fact, reading is so strongly reinforced that it can not prevent a normal - educated adult, a scripture which he perceives, even to read ( a circumstance which the advertising, eg in subways or on the roadside, advantage makes ). Textuales behavior may also be triggered by self - generated stimuli: One often generated texts ( quoted something ) to control its own future behavior.

The Autoclitic

The Autoclitic is the most complex of all verbal operants. It is controlled by the linguistic behavior of the speaker ( autoklitisch means " self - leaning "). The influence on the linguistic behavior is subtle. Compare the two sentences "I think it will rain " and "I 'm sure it 's going to rain ." "I think " and "I'm sure " are different Autoclitics that have nothing to do with the rain ( a feature of the physical environment ), but with one aspect on the part of the speaker who controls his linguistic behavior. Say "I think " and "I'm sure " the listener about the severity of the conviction of the speaker, that it will rain. If it does not rain, the reaction of the listener against the speaker will be different when he " I think," said when he "I'm sure ," said.

Overview of the "pure" verbal operant

The following table (adapted from Frost and Bondy ) summarizes the above verbal operant together.

In addition, Skinner also has a few other pure verbal operant, the transcription ( text as a trigger own writing behavior ) and especially the Tact various extensions (for example, the metaphorical extension or naming).

The multiple control linguistic behavior

Pure verbal operants are rare, more common is the multiple control, are effective in various combinations of conditions precedent and consequences. Example: A teacher holds the image of a house up and asks " What is it? ". The linguistic behavior of the student "A house " is now under the control of multiple question the teacher ( a linguistic behavior of another) and the image ( a feature of the physical environment ).

The following table ( again based on Frost and Bondy ) lists some complex verbal operants.

• Establishing itself surgery
• Characteristics of the physical environment

• Establishing itself surgery
• Verbal behavior of other

• Establishing itself surgery
• Characteristics of the physical environment
• Verbal behavior of other

• Characteristics of the physical environment
• Verbal behavior of other

• Characteristics of the physical environment
• Verbal behavior of other

• Verbal behavior of other

• Characteristics of the physical environment
• Verbal behavior of other

Genesis and reception

The impetus for Verbal Behavior was in 1934 by a conversation with the Skinner's philosophy professor Alfred North Whitehead at a dinner in Harvard from. 'll Tell Skinner put his views which to Whitehead asked him, but to explain his linguistic behavior, if he now is " No black scorpion is falling upon this table" ( " No black scorpion now falls on this table "). Skinner began during the night after the conversation with Whitehead work on a behavior-based interpretation of the language. He devoted a large part of 1944 this project and summarized the results in 1947 in a lecture at Columbia University and in his William James lecture series at Harvard University together. Copies of the lecture notes circulated soon among students. During a sabbatical in 1955, who spent Skinner in Putney in the U.S. state of Vermont, he wrote the raw text of Verbal Behavior. The challenge Witheheads answered Skinner in the last chapter of the book.

Skinner remained in the drafting of Verbal Behavior While in the terminology of behavior analysis, but also partly took back to the terminology of linguistics. He was oriented mainly to Leonard Bloomfield, but also to Otto Jespersen and Hermann Paul. Skinner influenced his view of language, in turn, the philosophy of language of Quine.

Skinner looked Verbal Behavior as his most important work. However, the publication of the book coincides with the beginning of the so-called cognitive revolution and the associated elimination of the behavior analysis of the psychology. In the broad psychological professionals, the work was therefore hardly taken seriously knowledge and is still quoted at best from secondary sources.

In the first meetings, the book was partly positive, received mixed to some extent. Prominent is the review of the book by the linguist Noam Chomsky in 1959. Chomsky ruled Verbal Behavior could not explain the phenomenon of language and simplify the subject matter unduly. Skinner claimed a general theory of behavior for himself and tries to show that this is able to take reasonable and consistent also the ( extreme) case of linguistic behavior. But if you take literally Skinner (ie, the terms used to interpret, as they were originally defined by him), he lies obviously in the field of human language wrong. If one regards his analysis in the figurative sense, then it is nothing more than an everyday consideration, which is contained in the language of the laboratory ("This Creates the illusion of a rigorous scientific theory with very broad scope, Although in fact the terms used in the description of real-life and laboratory behavior 'may be mere homonyms ", pp. 31 - see also Chomsky's summary of his position in an interview with Javier Virues - Ortega 2006). Chomsky points out that terms such as " stimulus ", " probability " and " stimulus control " are inappropriate when applied to human behavior. The term " responsiveness " as was a euphemism for less impressive expressions such as " interest ", " intend ", " faith ", etc. Skinner say about about the process as a scientific statement is borne out, having to perform additional variables are generated, the increase the likelihood of the statement ( " generating additional variables to increase enlarge its probability", p 425). If you literally take this definition, Chomsky (p. 34), then one could read the degree of confirmation of a scientific statement about how loud, shrill or often this will expressed.

Chomsky's critique was later itself subject to criticism of behavior analytic side. The criticism applies not only to the formal quality of Chomsky's meeting. Chomsky cites frequently simply wrong or out of context. On the other hand, the content of the meeting is dismissed. After Kenneth MacCorquodale Chomsky assumes that in the "real world" ( human language ) other natural laws than in the laboratory ( which is contrary to the principle of economy ). In addition, ignore or misunderstand Chomsky complexity of Skinner's analysis. Chomsky seems to think that whenever Skinner call a controlling variable, it mean, to have so the only variable found responsible - as is language just a collection of reflections. However, the multiple causation of speech acts is a common theme throughout the book. In the meeting it was mentioned even once. David Palmer replied to the central statement of Chomsky's criticism that one could apply the same argument against Newtonian mechanics: if you take literally Newton's laws of motion, then they are (in daily life ) patently false. If you conceive it in a figurative sense, then they were no more than scientific -sounding descriptions of the rules of thumb of the craftsman. Skinner but did not intend that you conceive his analysis as a metaphor. He made the strong prediction that the principles of conduct that have been discovered in the laboratory, in the technical sense can be applied to the interpretation of linguistic behavior.

The response to Chomsky's criticisms, however, hardly used outside of behavior analysis available. As before, is to be read in many psychological and linguistic books, Chomsky refuted Skinner's approach to explaining language or even the behavior analysis and behaviorism.

Under Behavior analysts Verbal Behavior was recorded positive. In particular, the behavior analytic treatment of infantile autism based on Verbal Behavior; Relational Frame Theory and the resulting from their acceptance and commitment therapy are further developments in the theory of Verbal Behavior. The frequency with which the work is cited, took over the years since the appearance constantly. From 1984 to 2004 Verbal Behavior was in scientific journals with peer review altogether in 1093 cited times (compared to Chomsky's Language and Mind of 1968 over the same period 250 times, Brown's A First Language: The Early Stages of 1973 was 1343 times cited ). The frequency of empirical studies based on Skinner's conception, increased as well. Their number has quadrupled to nearly 2004 in the period from 1989, which can be viewed as a testament to the vitality and fruitfulness of the theory.

Sources