Senate

The senate (Latin senatus from senex, " old man, old man " ) literally means " Elders ". The members of the Senate, the Senators (singular: Senator; feminine form: Senator or rarely Senatrix ) depending on the country, have different functions and areas of responsibility. In German, the Senate referred a collegial body, which can belong to the executive, legislative or judicial branches.

• 3.1 Senate in the Legislature
• 3.2 Senate in the executive branch
• 3.3 Senate in the Judicial Branch
• 3.4 Senate in higher education

Antiquity

Greece

In ancient Greece, among other things exist in Sparta a council of elders ( Gerusia ), as well as in Athens ( Areopagus ). Most of the other Greek city-states knew elders or nobles councils, which included, in addition to the public meetings, and magistracies usual characteristics of a polis. Even in non-Greek cities such as Carthage, there was a Adelsrat, which is called in the Latin sources " Senate ".

Roman Empire

The Roman Senate was the supreme council of the Roman Empire. Formally he had in the Republic as a meeting of the former functionaries Although only advisory, but in fact he was the center of power of the state. All senior officials of the Roman state were generally following their term of office. In the early and middle Republic received after the end of the year in office curule aediles former, also former tribunes and plebeian aediles and former after the reforms of Sulla quaestors ( the number of which had been increased by Sulla ) since the 2nd century BC a seat in the Senate. Their reputation and their influence dimension at their last -clad office. The highest offices of the cursus honorum, the praetorship and the consulship and the censorship, were achieved mainly due to the immense campaign costs almost exclusively by men of a few very influential and wealthy families of the upper classes. But now could gain a Senate seat as " more ordinary " citizens about the clothing of the lower-ranking offices.

The Senate included in the Early Republic about 100, later 300, since Sulla 600 and in the time of Caesar even more than 900 members. In the early Imperial period, the number of senators, however, was again reduced to about 600. The Panel also lost most of its power, its members remained but highly regarded. The members of the Senate were marked by some privileges, such as wearing the tunic with the broad purple stripe ( latus clavus ) or special seats of honor in the theater. Only a few so-called homines novi could be elevated to the Senate by the appointment of the emperor ( adlectio ). Due to the loss of honor or childlessness most families died after a short time again and the number 600 remained relatively constant. Since the 4th century, there was a second Senate in Constantinople Opel, since Constantius II of the same rights as enjoyed in Rome. The Western Roman Senate survived the end of the Western Empire 476 and did not disappear until about the year 600 In Ostrom / Byzantium he remained, although also exist without real power and with a changed character, even down to the Palaeologi.

In the late Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Early Middle Ages also members of the Roman imperial aristocracy designated in the Gallo-Roman Gaul as southern senators, as evidenced by the works of Gregory of Tours.

Middle Ages

Also during the Middle Ages come variously to people who described themselves as " senators " of Rome, such as Theophylact of Tusculum I., although there is no Senate was more in the real sense until the 12th century. 1143 was constituted in Rome but again a " Senate ", which was supported by large sections of the urban Roman population. He was represented mainly the interests of the Roman Commune against the pope, prelates, but also the great noble families. Even in the late Middle Ages senators are occupied.

Newer Senate

Senate in the Legislature

In political systems where Parliament consists of two chambers ( bicameralism ), the second chamber is often referred to ( the representation of objects or regions) and the Senate. just about

• The Council of States ( small chamber ) in Switzerland
• The French Senate,
• The Senate of Canada,
• The former Senate of the Republic in Turkey,
• The Senato della Repubblica in Italy,
• The Romanian Senate,
• The Senate of the Parliament of the Czech Republic,
• The Senado in Spain,
• The Australian Senate,
• The Polish Senate,
• The Belgian Senate,
• The First Chamber of the States General in the Netherlands, often called Senaat,
• The former Bavarian Senate and
• In Brazil the Federal Senate
• The Senate of Liberia.
• In the United States of America next to the Senate of the United States exist at the federal level and 49 Senate of the respective states. Only the Parliament in Nebraska consists of only one chamber. There exist the Senate of Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Iceland, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming.
• In Japan, there was until 1890 the Genrōin (Japanese元老院, literally " elders ").
• In that time the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, there was also a state governing body called the Senate.

Also a municipal college of mayor and city councilors ( aldermen, senators ) is sometimes referred to in Germany and Austria as the Senate. Thus, there are in some of today's Senate Hanseatic cities, for example in Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, Wismar, Bremen and Lübeck, but the Senate of Berlin. In Bavaria there was after the Bavarian Constitution 1946-1999 next to the Bavarian Parliament a corporate state as a second chamber of parliament, which was called the Bavarian Senate.

Senate in the executive branch

In Germany, the state governments of the city-states are referred to as Senate. Thus, the

• Senate of Berlin, the
• Senate of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and the
• Senate of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg.

The city government of the Austrian capital Vienna is the Vienna City Senate.

Historic Senate there were in the Free and Hanseatic city of Lübeck, the Free City of Frankfurt and the Free City of Danzig.

Senate in the Judicial Branch

Formation of the Court within a top or highest court are referred to as Senate; For example, the Senate of the Higher Regional Court or a Federal court (see Civil Division, Criminal Division ). In addition, the panels of the fiscal courts are designated as Senate.

Also, quasi-judicial bodies within the administration, such as the Austrian administrative tribunals bear the name.

Senate in higher education

At universities, the Academic Senate is a self-governing body and the supreme body. As the democratically elected collegial body he stands beside the individual organs ( the Rector, the President or the Registrar ) and provides depending on local law legislative (such as the Articles of Association, set up by studies), advisory, strategic, controlling and management tasks.

The dignity of an " Honorary Senator " can be awarded by universities for exceptional service to the university. The ceremony usually get officials such as the Mayor of the City, the President of a Chamber of Commerce and Industry or a foundation personality, such as at the University of Freiburg.

A body of elected members of scientific societies and academic professional associations is called the Senate.

Culture

The term Senate is due to its historically diverse meanings in numerous films and novels use. For example, there is in George Lucas ' Star Wars at the time of the Republic, a Senate, in which each galactic sector is represented by one senator as the Republic covers a large part of the galaxy.