Biodiversity

Biodiversity or biological diversity referred to in accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity ( Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD) "means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part ." Thus, it includes diversity within species and the diversity between species and of ecosystems. According to this definition, there is also the biodiversity of genetic diversity.

Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are considered as an important basis for human welfare. In the destruction and fragmentation of habitats, by far the greatest threat to biological diversity on earth is seen. As to the question which received biological variability and how biodiversity should be parameterized by, there is no consensus. This disagreement is rooted in competing biodiversity concepts and objectives that are pursued with the conservation of biodiversity.

3.1 Traditional farming practices and biodiversity

7.1 Self- worth and self- value
7.2 Hypothesis insurance and insurance value
7.3 Value for Pharmaceuticals and Food
7.4 Conservation of health
7.5 Social aspects of biodiversity loss

8.1 conventions
8.2 Official Strategies 8.2.1 Germany
8.2.2 European Union

For the development of the concept and its importance implications

Technical term in biology

For some time the term exists " diversity " as an ecological technical term to describe the " diversity" of the characteristics of communities or ecological systems ( α - and γ - diversity, see below). The most famous Beschreibungsmaß for diversity in addition to the number of species ( species richness ), the derived from information theory Shannon -Wiener index. It takes into account both the frequency distribution and species richness. Another common diversity index in biology is the Simpson's Index.

The diversity of a community as defined here is initially non-judgmental to understand as an ecological concept description. Thus, diversity indices can not be used readily to compare a normative interpretable nature conservation value of communities.

Concept in environmental policy

Biodiversity is the short form of the term biodiversity (german: biological diversity or biodiversity ). The term biodiversity is originally from the scientific environment of the U.S. conservation movement. The use of "biodiversity" in research contexts led to a certain politicization of the scientific research field of conservation biology. The establishment of the concept should serve to promote political demands with social, economic and scientific- political background. The title of 1986 by the evolutionary biologist Edward O. Wilson published book Biodiversity (English edition ) was the first widely perceived use of the term. The book was preceded by about a U.S. conference.

In German-speaking countries is "Biodiversity " in 1992 used more and more since the debate on the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity ( CBD) at the Earth Summit.

Ambivalent language use in Germany

Sometimes the term biodiversity is used synonymously for biodiversity. However, the chosen in the CBD definition also includes several other meanings ( see below). In German-speaking countries, the term is generally considered a " bulky " and hard to communicate in public. Even the Federal Republic of Germany, the host of the 9th Conference of the Parties in 2008, strove for the public perception of a replacement term, calling the event " conference on nature conservation ".

Levels, indicators and measures of biodiversity

Biological diversity includes different levels:

A complete characterization of biodiversity must include all four levels.

The CBD has delegated the development of indicators for biodiversity Biodiversity Indicators Partnership. Important indicators are

The abundance and distribution of species,
The forest area,
The surface of protected areas ( nature reserves, etc.),
The water quality of the sea water and fresh water (eutrophication, pollution, etc.)
Number of carriers of traditional knowledge through natural indigenous people.

This is due to methodological difficulties in part, to measures of biodiversity itself, but better known or more easily measurable surrogate measures, ie indicators ( eng.: indicators, proxies ).

For the measurement of biodiversity in a wider context than that of the individual community 's approach Whittaker is particularly significant. According to Robert H. Whittaker (1960, 1977) species diversity is divided into alpha, beta, gamma, delta and epsilon diversity. These classifications describe diversity patterns as a function of the observed surface or surface distribution patterns.

Biological and cultural diversity

In all regions with high biological diversity also home to many indigenous and local communities. The International Society for Ethnobiology assumes that there are 99% of the world's usable genetic resources in their care. Whether a direct correlation between biological and cultural diversity exists, is not detectable. However, the wide variety of indigenous cultures and by far the largest number of different languages is striking.

Traditional farming practices and biodiversity

In contrast, however, there is a clear relationship in the form of a mutual dependency relationship between the natural environment and the traditional ( subsistence-oriented and non-industrial ) economies of local groups. On the one hand these people a great resource diversity need to exercise their subsistence (including in the Convention on Biological Diversity recognized ) and on the other hand, the local diversity is increased by the traditional methods ( This can also be historic for the Central European natural areas occupy the mosaic of extensively used agricultural land and forests was significantly richer in species than the potential climax vegetation ). The inclusion of local groups in the market economy requires the generation of surpluses, which are usually achieved by the introduction of industrial production or conversion to economically worthwhile products. This usually leads to the destruction of natural habitats and thus to the loss of biodiversity. S. 47, 48

Loss of biodiversity

A team of scientists from eight countries has identified the five most important factors in 2000 that cause the loss of global biodiversity mainly:

Change in land use. These include in particular deforestation of forests and the transformation of natural ecosystems to agricultural land.
Changes in climate, including precipitation and temperature.
Nitrogen pollution of water. Entries on artificial fertilizers, sewage and car exhaust are called main responsibility here.
Introduction of neophytes
Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Suitable measures to counter the decline in biodiversity, the replacement of fossil fuels and wood by alternative energy sources, an enlargement of protected areas for the preservation of primary ecosystems, especially in the tropical rain forests, as well as maintaining the current diversity in nature and agriculture apply.

Biodiversity hotspots

For a geographical area in which biodiversity is particularly large, the term biodiversity hotspot has naturalized. An important study on the expulsion of the hotspots was established in 2000 by Myers et al. (2000) submitted. The hotspots are in Myers et al. defined as areas with a high number of endemic plant species that have been lost in this area, the predominant part of their original habitat. As an indicator, therefore, the criterion of biodiversity and the risks derived from the extent of habitat loss apply. Brooks et al. (2001 ) describe the extent of habitat loss and species extinction in the hotspots.

Biodiversity and functionality of ecosystems

The importance of biodiversity for ecosystem functioning has been controversial for several decades. In the late 1960s, these discussions reached an initial consensus: Diversity promotes stability. This consensus, however, was a short time later disturbed sensitive, as Robert May by mathematical simulations came to the conclusion that the species constancy in randomly assembled species-rich ecosystems model is lower than in species-poor. The constancy of species composition was considered the most important indicator of the stability of an ecosystem. An intense new employment with the diversity- stability question brought the results of David Tilman published from the mid- 1980s. The question of the importance of biodiversity for the functioning of ecosystems is a focus of ecosystem research and conservation ecology. It is now following this scientific consensus:

The functional characteristics of species have a strong influence on the properties of an ecosystem. From the relative frequency of a species alone, the importance of this type for the ecosystem can not always be derived. Relatively rare species can greatly affect the quality of the ecosystem.
Some species, often, these are dominant to take, within the communities a decisive role (so-called keystone species ). Their loss leads to drastic changes in terms of structure and function of the community.
The effects of extinctions and changes in species composition may in particular the nature of the ecosystem, in terms of the type of ecosystems and of the way how to express the change in the community, different from each other.
Some ecosystem properties are initially less susceptible to the extinction of species, as several species perhaps a similar function within an ecosystem meet (redundancy), individual species perhaps relatively small contributions to the functionality of an ecosystem contribute ( ' irrelevance ') or abiotic environmental conditions, the nature of determine the ecosystem.
With increasing spatial and temporal variability of the number of necessary for the functioning of ecosystems types increases.

As is probably true:

The susceptibility of a community for the establishment of invasive species negatively correlated with the number of species, with the ' saturation ' of the community. But also depends on other factors such as the introduction rate of diasporas ( propagule pressure), confounding factors or resource availability.
If existing species respond differently to disturbance factors, then the function of the ecosystem in interference tends to remain intact, as if the existing species respond similarly to disturbance factors.

Economic and social importance of biodiversity

The CBD affirms the value of biological diversity and its components in terms of ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic contexts and with regard to the recovery function and is committed in addition to the instrumental aspects of the intrinsic value of biodiversity.

Self- worth and self- value

Eigenvalue means that biodiversity is estimated to be due to their importance attached by people value. This appreciation concerns such as their very existence, their personal and cultural significance for the individual in terms of sentimental value and home, their particular nature or even the possibility of the individual specific experiences, such as to mediate the wilderness. From the perspective of the ecosystem services approach, the elements, structures, states and processes of ecological systems, which eigenvalues are attributed, usually taken as a cultural ecosystem services.

Delimit From the eigenvalue of the self-worth of biodiversity. Under self-worth of biodiversity is understood by Uta Eser of the intrinsic value of biodiversity. Objects with self-esteem have an end in itself and of itself, can not be replaced, are generally not liable consideration and are not monetisierbar. Under the aspect of self-esteem of biodiversity concepts are to be preferred, which summarize the conservation of biodiversity itself in the eye, so fix the scale not only in maintaining their functions. Whether one can attribute to biodiversity or the creatures they represent, self- values , is very controversial.

Insurance hypothesis and insurance value

After the ecological insurance hypothesis ( Ecological Insurance Hypothesis ) can be expected that an increase in the number of species (and / or the genetic variability within the populations of a species ) have a stabilizing effect on various process parameters of ecological systems has. With increase in the number of species increases the likelihood that several species occur, which can perform a very similar ecological function (functional redundancy), but differ in their environmental tolerances. This reduces the likelihood of dying during changes in environmental conditions, all species locally that can fulfill the function in question.

A high number of species is also a condition that in an ecosystem a large number of different ecological functions can be taken over (functional diversity). Change the environmental conditions, so a previously little significant function are relevant. For example, a previously externally furnished with abundant reactive nitrogen compounds ecosystem cut off from the source of nitrogen, the importance of nitrogen -fixing organisms increases. In a species-rich ecosystem, the probability is higher that already styles are available that can perform this function. Likewise, it is assumed in species-rich ecosystems that the food web relationships are more stable.

If biological diversity - in accordance with the ecological insurance hypothesis or similar mechanisms - a stabilization of processes and states of ecological systems, biodiversity can be assigned an insurance value. This is at least always the case when dependent ecosystem services of the processes and conditions. A high level of biodiversity ie ecosystem services are the trend usable for reliable. Considered environmental Economically, the insurance value Option value is the face of an uncertain future, as the magnitude of future disorders that require stabilization is not known.

It can be tried in various ways to estimate the insurance value the economic perspective. One method draws on the susceptibility of the processes and structures of the ecosystem and to determine the effect of this on the provision of ecosystem services. Since the insurance value is derived mainly relate to the behavior of ecological systems with disturbances, the economic quantification can be difficult. Disturbances caused changes namely often have no linear effect on the provision of ecosystem services. Rather large changes usually comes when a certain threshold, the so-called " tipping point " is exceeded. The probability to exceed the tipping point can be used as an indication of the economic value. Sound knowledge in regard to the current state of the system on its requirements as well as its specific tipping point areas are required for the insurance value underlying assessment. See also stability concepts of ecosystems, particularly the resilience.

Another method for quantifying the economics of the insured value shall make a direct determination of the willingness of people. Are being introduced social science survey methods ( stated preference methods ) as the contingent valuation or choice experiment. Evidence that such insurance value is recognized by the public as an economic preference in terms of willingness to pay are, now before by several studies from Indonesia, Chile and Germany. Another method is the observation of the decision behavior of land users. Thus it could be demonstrated that farmers appreciate the advantage which brings a reduced fluctuation in the annual crop yield at higher agrobiodiversity: they then build preferably different crops ( crop diversity) to. The agronomic value of crop diversity is limited by countervailing advantages of specialization.

Value of Pharmacy and Food

Economic importance of biodiversity as well. Than reservoir of potential medicinal agents of food crops and of genes for agricultural variety breeding, biotechnological processes or for bionic developments ( option value )

The benefit of herbal medicines is huge: Already, over 20,000 species are known, of which 1,400 are potentially as a cancer treatment is important. The total economic value was in 1987 estimated at over 40 billion U.S. dollars. The progressive reduction of biodiversity reduces this potential massive.

95.7 % of the global food plants originate from tropical and subtropical regions, where biodiversity is particularly high. In this respect, it can be assumed that also occur in the future valuable genetic resources for the global food supply. In particular, because food production is currently based on worldwide only around 30 species, although there are about 30,000 edible plants. The specialization in a few cereals and vegetables is risky. It is not enough to maintain genetic diversity in seed banks only. As for the wild plants also applies to all crops, the rule that only sufficient genetic diversity in the long term against unexpected developments (such as diseases or pest infestation) protects. It was also noted that a wide variety of pollinating insects particularly effective shape the pollen distribution and thus lead to higher and more secure income ( such as cucurbits crops).

While interested scientists and company representatives were able to operate freely in the past on the biodiversity of foreign countries ( " biopiracy " ), led the Convention on Biological Diversity proprietary rights of the State, at its genetic resources. About an Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS ) said mechanism is an attempt to facilitate the use of genetic resources, to have the same share in the source countries of biodiversity to their economic use.

Maintenance of health

The loss of biodiversity can increase the prevalence of infectious diseases in an ecosystem. The program supports the spread of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria and pathogenic fungi. The health of people but also of the remaining animals and plants, can be jeopardized.

Social aspects of biodiversity loss

In many cases, make the consequences of declining biodiversity as first the rural poor, as it is often directly dependent on ecosystem services, which are based in turn on a variety of biological environment or the sustainable use of its elements. Substitute for these ecosystem services is these populations are often not available or not affordable.

Protection of biodiversity

Conventions

Provides a basis for the protection of biodiversity, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity ( Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD ) ), which was decided in 1992 and signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 192 Member States. Other international agreements on the protection of biodiversity are the Ramsar Convention and the Washington Convention (CITES ). In the CBD, the Member States have committed themselves to halting the loss of biodiversity. The three main objectives are: the protection of biodiversity, its sustainable use and the fair compensation resulting from the use ( genetic ) benefits arising.

Official strategies

Germany

The federal government adopted in 2007 a National Strategy on Biological Diversity. In so doing, to an order of the CBD. The strategy identifies 330 goals and 430 measures and will be valid until 2020. At the core of biodiversity decline should be halted. About the implementation of the strategy of the Bundestag shall be kept regularly.

European Union

The European Commission published on 2 May 2011 an own biodiversity strategy with which it wants to stop the loss of biodiversity by 2020. The strategy includes six targets:

The full implementation of Directive 92/43/EEC (Fauna - Flora -Habitat Directive ) of 1992.
The preservation and enhancement of ecosystems.
The contribution of agriculture and forestry to increase the conservation and enhancement of ecosystems.
To ensure the sustainable use of fish stocks.
To identify the spreading of invasive species, and to control.
Help to stop the global loss of biodiversity.

Others

The United Nations has established the International Day for Biological Diversity since 2000 on May 22, the day of the adoption of the Convention ( previously was named in 1994 December 29 for the day of their entry into force).
The year 2010 was proclaimed by the United Nations as the International Year of Biodiversity.

Guild (ecology) Local community Means of production Norman Myers G. David Tilman Set-aside Barley Nitrogen fixation Integrated Authority File

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