Colonization of Mars

Plans for Mars colonization deal with the permanent colonization of Mars by humans. Although there are scientific studies on the topic, involving for example the so-called terraforming, Mars colonization is so far only an idea. There are currently plans of private initiative Mars One, in order to realize this project.

The plans of the U.S. space agency NASA and the European Space Agency ( ESA) are still to be fictitious, to actually realize a manned flight to Mars can.

• 8.1 solar
• 8.2 nuclear
• 8.3 Other

Similarities to the earth

Mars is a relatively Earth-like planet:

• The length of the Martian day ( " sol " called ) is very similar to that of Earth Day. A sol is 24 hours, 37 minutes and 35.244 seconds.

• Mars has a surface which corresponds to 28.4 % of the earth and is only slightly smaller than the land area ( 29.2 % of the earth's surface ). Mars has half the radius of the Earth and only one-tenth the mass. This means that it has a smaller volume (~ 15%) and lower average density than the earth.

• The planet has an axial tilt 25.19 °, 23.44 ° with respect to the earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like the Earth, though they are almost twice as long because the Martian year, about 1.88 Earth takes years.

• Mars has an atmosphere. Although it is very thin (about 0.7% of the Earth's atmosphere ). Yet it offers some protection from cosmic and solar radiation, and has been successfully used for braking an atmosphere of spacecraft.

• Recent observations by NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers, ESA 's Mars Express and NASA's Phoenix Lander confirm the presence of water ice on Mars.

Differences to Earth

• The strength of the planetary magnetic field is only about a hundredth of the Earth's magnetic field and thus provides very little protection against cosmic radiation. After three years, the maximum values ​​were reached after the security directives of NASA for astronauts.

• The atmosphere is very thin ( 0.7% of the Earth's atmosphere ) and carbon dioxide -heavy, so would require pressure suits. Also the reaching of a Earth-like composition of the air and adjust the pressure by means of terraforming is difficult because the solar wind would over time constantly erode the upper layers until a magnetic field is formed. According to latest research, it is assumed that the magnetic field after the solidification of the inner part of the - today completely liquid - core returns (In which period of time this will happen, however, is disputed). Furthermore, the air pressure on Mars is only about 6 mbar, which ( 61.8 mbar) is far below the Armstronglimit can live without pressure suits for the humans. Therefore, would on Mars habitable structures with pressure vessels, similar to a spaceship to be built that are able to build up a pressure of between two-thirds and a bar.

• Mars is an average surface temperature of -23 ° C in the equatorial regions and a low of -140 ° C in the direction of the polar caps much colder than Earth. The lowest temperature measured on the earth, is -93.2 ° C, in the Antarctic.

• The Mars seemed geologically almost completely inactive until recently. According to latest research, however, the volcanoes could erupt at any time again, because there might have been a shift in the tectonic plates, or may still be ( suspected due to the different magnetization ).

• There is no standing water with liquid water on the Martian surface.

• Because Mars is further away from the sun, the amount of solar energy reaching the upper atmosphere, is less than half of the amount that reaches the upper atmosphere of the earth, or the surface of the moon. However, the solar energy that reaches the surface of Mars, not obstructed by a dense atmosphere like on Earth.

• The further distance from the sun the Martian year with 668.5907 sol is about twice as long as the Earth year.

• The orbit of Mars is more eccentric than that of Earth, which increases the variation of the surface temperature and solar constant.

Transport

With the large and highly fluctuating distance between Earth and Mars, traveling to Mars would render very complex. Using today's technology requires a spaceship 6-10 months for the outward journey. The launch window for the ideal case arising from the sidereal period of Earth - Mars, which lasts 779 days, or about 26 months.

To reach Mars, you need less energy per unit mass (delta -V) than to any other planet except Venus. On a Hohmann train a journey to Mars requires approximately nine months. Amended trajectories that reduce the travel time to seven or six months in space, are indeed possible, but require higher amounts of energy and fuel compared to a Hohmann train and are already standard for unmanned missions to Mars. Shortening the travel time to less than six months requires a higher velocity change and an exponentially increasing amount of fuel. This is not possible with chemical rockets, but could be made possible by advanced powertrain technologies that are not currently in use, such as VASIMR, and nuclear missiles. The latter could potentially shorten the flight time to about two weeks. Another possibility are constant accelerating technologies such as solar sails and ion drives, enable the processing times of the order of several weeks. Both are currently feasible and can easily a constant acceleration of 0.1 g of reach.

During the trip, the astronauts of radiation before they must be protected subject. Cosmic rays and solar wind cause DNA damage that can increase the risk of cancer, but the effect of long-term space flights in interplanetary space on the human body is unknown. Nasa scientists, who generally calculated the radiation risk based on the risk of cancer, quantify caused by a 1000 -day Mars mission probability of dying from cancer, with 1% to 19 %. It should however be noted that this probability is an additional risk. This could be connected with the base probability of 20 % that a 40 -year-old Non smoking dies of cancer, leading to a 39% risk of developing life- ending cancer. In women, the probability of cancer is cancer, caused, probably increased by the greater proportion of glandular tissue in the total weight.

Landing on Mars

Mars has only 38 % of the attraction of the earth, and the density of the atmosphere is approximately only 1 percent compared to Earth. The relatively strong gravity and adverse aerodynamic effects make it much more difficult to land a bigger spacecraft with thrusters, as was done in the Apollo moon landings. Projects with heavy land units require different braking and landing systems that were used in previous manned lunar missions or unmanned missions to Mars.

Assuming that carbon nanotubes are available with a thickness of 130 GPa as a building material, you could build a space elevator to bring men and material to Mars. A space elevator on Phobos has also been suggested.

Transport on Mars

Mars Rover RTGs would offer himself as a first transport, although an operation on these due to the loads to be carried, would not be very efficient. Hydrazine as a fuel was perhaps an alternative, depending on synthesizability on Mars there would be other variants.

This Rover should - if possible - include residential modules, as multi-day research cruises are desirable. When setting up multiple colonies could connect them with magnetic levitation trains that could reach much higher speeds than on Earth due to the lower atmosphere. However, they need to be separate life support modules that the inmates could also get a long time in the life in case of emergencies such as pressure loss and derailments for the same reason.

Since an atmosphere is present, you would have the possibility of flying machines such as airships or airplanes investigate. Experiments on Earth have shown that balloons can fly in enough volume, even at very low pressure and lift loads. For a thinner atmosphere would fly a plane correspondingly faster to get the same boost.

On Mars, even you would have to use customized space suits, because the designed for gravity suits are very heavy and rigid. As an alternative, one could close -fitting suits, similar to using a wetsuit that would have to be very tightly to ensure the necessary pressure. When equipped with heating elements and an air helmet such a suit probably allows the necessary freedom of movement for Foreign Missions under gravity. Currently in development, however, are rigid, an armor -like spacesuits with plastic joints.

Supply

A solution to the beginnings of the Mars colony would be to create several small nuclear reactors with a lifetime of about 15 years on Mars or produce there. If we assume that a Mars colony to be built no earlier than 2030, it can be assumed that the reactor technology has developed far enough to satisfy the request to the Mars. Also, probably smaller reactors can produce more energy.

For a permanent settlement the supply of food and breathing air must be allowed regardless of the constant supply of the earth. Indispensable is the 100 % - owned water treatment from the beginning. One consequence is therefore the medium-term construction of a closed biological system in which the colonists grow or produce their own food. One possibility would be to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide from the Earth from Mars water. With a ton of hydrogen to two tons of methane and about four and a half tons of water could produce. However, NASA analyzes show that about 2 % of the Martian soil consist of thermally dissociable water, which can also be used to local production of industrial water. It will also discuss genetic changes that allow a better adaptation of the fauna and flora to the new environment.

The establishment of a Mars base could look like this:

• Construct residential units from containers
• Extracting raw materials from the surface of Mars
• Production of hydrogen, oxygen and fuel
• Cultivation of crops or build a biological system

Due to progressive achievements in robotics and automation technology and corresponding projects for extraction on asteroids, inter alia, a different order is conceivable. Thus, raw material and nutrient extraction chains would first established to biological systems, and only then may build larger, more usable by humans modules under very strong use of the then existing resources and infrastructure, even before the first permanent settlers arrive.

Communication

The contact with the earth would be difficult, since the transmission time of the signal with distance is between 3 minutes and 6 seconds at favorable opposition (smallest distance ) and 22 minutes and 18 seconds with an unfavorable conjunction ( greatest distance ) varies. Within a dialog, ie a conversation between a station on Earth and the station on Mars, so breaks of 6 minutes and 12 seconds to 44 minutes and 36 seconds between messages come about, associated with a significantly lower transmission rate. Latter bottleneck, however, you can work around by positioning relay stations between Earth and Mars on a solar orbit. You would have to be resistant to strong radiation, however, would by their proximity to the Sun can use this as the sole energy source, without having to rely on a radioisotope generator.

Similarly, one could proceed on Mars itself. An ionosphere is indeed demonstrated their effect size on Mars but has not yet been determined. Means areosynchroner satellites, Mars equivalent of geosynchronous satellites could be relatively easily enable global communication. Depending on the available resources, could this possibly even finished on Mars itself.

Calendar

As already mentioned in the Martian Sol is 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds longer and the Martian year with 668.5907 sol, about twice as long as the Earth year. This makes its own calendars and clocks for the Mars settlers necessary. With this problem have already employs some experts. These include the aerospace engineer and political scientist Thomas Gangale. He published in 1985 a Martian calendar, which he named after his son Darius Darischen calendar. Some authors took up this idea and published in the following years, variations of the Darischen calendar. Other authors such as Robert Zubrin and David Powell covered the idea and brought out his own designs. The latter provides a concept for Martian watches.

All such calendar is however common that it is solar calendar. The Martian moons Deimos and Phobos are rather unsuitable in contrast to Earth's moon as timepieces because they are on the other hand not be seen particularly well on the one hand relatively quickly.

Radiation

Mars has no global magnetic field, which would be comparable to the Earth's magnetic field. Combined with a thin atmosphere, this allows a significant amount of ionizing radiation to reach the surface of Mars. The space probe Mars Odyssey led an instrument with itself, the Mars Radiation Environment Experiment ( MARIE ), to measure the hazard for humans. MARIE found that radiation in orbit about Mars is 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. Average doses were about 22 milliradians per day ( 220 micro grays per day or 0.08 gray per year). A three-year exposure at such levels would be near the limit, which is currently set by NASA. The level on the Martian surface would be a little low and highly variable in different places, depending on the altitude and the strength of the local magnetic field.

Occasional solar proton events ( SPEs ) produce much higher doses. From MARIE some SPEs were observed which could not be considered by sensors in the vicinity of the earth due to the fact that SPEs are directed in one direction, making it difficult to warn astronauts on Mars early enough.

Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, the NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center opened a facility, the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory ( NSRL ) at Brookhaven National Laboratory, the particle accelerator used to simulate space radiation. The facility will study the effect of the particles on living organisms along with shielding techniques. There is some evidence that at this low level of cosmic radiation is not quite as dangerous as previously thought; and that when radiation hormesis occurs. The agreement between those who have dealt with the issue is that the radiation level, which appears to Mars and on the surface of Mars during flight, is a problem. However, this problem does not prevent a trip with current technology.

The following measures are possible:

• Burial: A possible colony is first built on the surface and then covered with Martian soil. This method would not only protect against radiation but also from small meteorites that pass through the atmosphere to the Martian soil.

• Armor of Building: Using existing resources or with materials brought to an absorbent reinforcement of the ceiling could be reached.

• Shielding with water: water has radiation- absorbing properties. The water tanks (cooling water, waste water, drinking water) can be arranged flat on the residence premises.

• Shield with artificial magnets: With sufficient energy supply could use large electromagnetic fields as a substitute for the missing Mars magnetic field for deflecting fast charge carriers.

• By natural formations: It is known that there are on the surface of Mars has strong regional differences in the magnetic field. When setting up a colony in such an area of relatively strong field strength they could be protected by these natural fields.

Energy supply

A powerful energy supply for heating and food production is vital for a colony. The following approaches will be discussed:

Solar

The use of solar panels and solar cells for power generation has been a great help in previous space missions, especially in mission objectives within the asteroid belt. Resistance against external forces was mostly negligible. On Mars, but that will be different, because it has a gravity that makes an increased stability of the structure is necessary. If you count as an additional argument to the low and fluctuating solar constant (590 W / m² at average distance Sun - Mars ) was added, as well as a location close to the poles, which would have to deal as well as on the earth with a midnight sun, one notes that solar energy really only to support and can not serve as the main energy supplier. Moreover rage on Mars, partly global, storms that occur periodically and last months. Thus, the sky darkens and the solar cells are covered with dust.

Nuclear

There are essentially two ways of using nuclear energy:

NASA is currently working on using Stirling engines and alkali metals in RTGs, the efficiency to 15 - could increase 20 %, thus making the use more efficient.

Other

Of course there is always the possibility that resources will be found on Mars that release usable energy through chemical processes, so the completeness, it is half that possibility mentioned. Also, one should not let the possibility of a areothermischen (analogous to " geothermal " on the earth) energy aside, however, this would still further studies are conducted. Also, it should be possible to use wind power, because as with many sandstorms show is a lot of wind energy on the Red Planet.

Habitability

The conditions of the surface of Mars are much closer to the habitability than the surface of another planet or moon, such as the extreme hot and cold temperatures on Mercury, the oven - hot surface of Venus, or the extreme cold of outer planets ( eg Jupiter) and their moons. Only the cloud layer of Venus is, in terms of habitability, closer to the earth.

The temperatures near the equator are similar to those on the coldest places in the Antarctic; For example, the temperatures fluctuated at the Viking 1 landing location during the day -89 to -31 ° C.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, various research projects have been carried out on the theory beyond which it had the objective to simulate life on Mars. Thus, the Mars Society began in 2000 their Mars Analogue Research Station Program, which today consists of two station, Flash Line Mars Arctic Research Station in the Canadian Arctic and the Mars Desert Research Station in Utah. Even by the government were topics related research projects carried out, such as Mars -500 by Roscosmos and the European Space Agency.

Mars to Stay

To save energy and resources, suggested the astronaut Buzz Aldrin, the first astronauts were to remain for an indefinite period on Mars. The concept of a Mars -to -stay- mission has been systematically described for the first time in 1990 at the workshop Case for Mars VI during a presentation entitled One Way to Mars by George Herbert.

Terraforming

→ See also: terraforming

The aim of terraforming is to convert the inhospitable Mars in a habitat that is adapted to the physiology of man. Ideally, the person should after completion of this process can be outdoors without a pressure suit and breathing apparatus. Terraforming is not a condition for the colonization of Mars, but could significantly improve the quality of life.

However, it raises the question whether the introduction of life is really justified on Mars. If before this intervention already microorganisms living in the Martian soil, so terraforming would the specialized among them the livelihood snatch ( and thus likely to be condemned to extinction ), or give them the opportunity to spread and mass to multiply.

The existing knowledge about the complex relationships is not sufficient to establish a diverse, stable ecosystem. With Biosphere 2 was proved that we are currently unable to recreate the whole earth in scale. The selection of the introduced species harbors uncontrollable risks.

Terraforming would require an immense effort. It would take decades before even the first results would be visible. The entire process must be controlled over several centuries. The long-term stability of the result, however, remains controversial. Therefore, from private economic point of view such an investment is hardly conceivable, so it would probably be taken only as a Community national project in attack. Most likely that terraforming is carried out in the more distant future of any colonists settled there who want to improve their own living conditions. For them, the interest is likely to be it large.

Organizations

There are already some organization in the field. These are, inter alia,

• Mars Society - Society for further exploration and colonization of Mars
• Mars One - initiative to establish a human colony on Mars by 2023.
• Mars Homestead Foundation
• Mars Artists Community
• Red Colony
• Mars Drive
• Mars Institute

Fictions