Culturally modified tree
In Culturally Modified Trees, short CMTs are trees that have been altered by indigenous cultures as part of their traditional use of the forest. The term is culturally very broad.
The cultural value of the CMTs for indigenous groups has long been known, but its importance as a historical source has been perceived only since the early 1980s. Meanwhile, one speaks of " CMT archives " or simply " CMTs " to emphasize their importance as sources. The methodology of collection and interpretation has made significant progress and the issues have been refined.
In public, the CMTs have been barely noticed, but have marks of the trees, as in Stanley Park in Vancouver, they made known the local urbanites.
Although the limitation is not justified on the processing by Native Indians in particular, closer, she has nevertheless prevailed in Western Canada. The same applies to the western U.S., northern Scandinavia and Southeast Australia with view of the Indians, the seeds and the Aborigines. Although research is so rarely outside the indigenous cultures of CMTs, there is a corresponding research project for the carvings of the Basque shepherds that have arisen 1860-1930 in the United States.
Demarcation
The changes on the trees are strictly categorized. It may be for these modifications to Arboglyphen, so to carvings on trees, or to Arbographen, paintings of trees. However, these are quite rare. You can for example have been made to commemorate a historic event. Are much more common in the broadest sense signs of use. This move about by the production of a canoe or extraction of fibers for blankets, clothing or hats. The fibers of some species even served as food.
Protection, collection and analysis of CMT archives using the example Canada
In the Canadian province of British Columbia are the trees a complicated legislation, inspired by the momentous for historical sites. Please adhere to trees that existed before 1846 and have relevant machining marks, in principle, be like. In 2000, the first time a Canadian has been taken to court for felling more than 300 -year-old CMTs. From 1996 to 2006, no further approval was granted to fell a CMT. In 2006, however, was against the resistance of the Haida on the Queen Charlotte Islands ( Haida Gwaii ), issued such a permit again for the first time.
Even if the CMTs are spared, it means the removal of natural storm protection by neighboring trees may cause danger. Therefore, as the Hupacasath on Vancouver Iceland translated by a protection zone of at least 20 to 30 m.
The trees are covered in a now highly standardized procedures, classified and dated if possible. The found tracks are dated and corresponding activities and rituals of living there First Nations, as the Indians are called in Canada, assigned. There are a number of procedural rules that govern the collection, but also the collection of observations and their reunification. Appropriate forms have been developed to facilitate the detection, to accelerate and standardize. In order to open up the results of a simplified, but also more complete analysis, in the form of statistics and maps. Facilitates and refines the detection is satellite-based positioning systems.
The reasons for these studies are firstly the special significance that have these trees for the ritual full trains and culture of the First Nations. Therefore, especially the Indians lay in the temperate rain forest whose trees are highly durable and up to 100 m high, a high value on their identification and conservation.
The processed trees also represent an only slowly be tapped source for the history of First Nations represents, which is otherwise dependent on the pre-European time on archaeological sources and the oral tradition, or relies on results of genetics.
This provides historians, ethno- historians, anthropologists and ethnologists considerable problems. Firstly, the wood industry expects clarity on what trees can not be felled, and what not. That to this consideration is not always taken, is clear, in particular where no recording has been made yet. On the other hand in Canada still common form of logging, clear cutting, long areas has created, in which not a single of these trees is more. Other problems prepares the fact that these historical artifacts are not recognized by most non- Indians as such. So it always comes back to the unconscious destruction of sources. In addition, areas with CMTs are often extremely remote, so scientists have to rely on evidence of the Indians and the other a local expert to find the artifacts at all.
Finally, often resulting cultural misunderstandings and conflicts of interest, because often this knowledge to the corresponding trees is not intended for the public. It "belongs", such as the Nuu- chah- nulth on the west coast of Vancouver Iceland, certain families, stories, myths and dances are also in possession of the appropriate rituals, ritual objects. Alone on the small island of Flores 71 culturally modified trees registered, standing like monuments, archives or libraries under protection.
Beginnings of research
The changes to trees were perceived early on, but not until the early 1980s, their potential for historical and ethnographic research has been detected. Hebda and Mathewes 1984 recognized the importance of CMTs on the Pacific coast, provide the traces to the time around 3000 BC.
The importance of the CMTs was associated with the deforestation of old forest stands on Vancouver Iceland of considerable political importance. This historical sciences and First Nations worked together closely. The battle for Iceland Meares, who, inter alia, was fought with the argument here will destroy an important historical site, was also successful for this reason. As a result, sought other tribes to make their forests with the same argument under protection.
Most tree species and their use
Gottesfeld has demonstrated 21 tree species that play a role as CMTs, especially the Western Red Cedar so-called (Giant Thuja plicata), but also the yellow cedar ( Nootka cypress, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ), plus Norway spruce ( Picea glauca among others ), hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ), pine (Pinus contorta, Pinus ponderosa) to Populus tremuloides, Populus trichocarpa and Alnus rubra. Hemlock and spruce were also eaten or used as medicine. Spruce trees were used because of their resin, which was used as an adhesive.
So the most common traces came from peeling the bark from the resin extraction, cutting planks and boards, even whole canoes, totem poles or house stands. Then there were test or sample holes to elicit the state of the tree. The removal of scale left its mark.
Development and results of some research projects
Said, unspecified justifiable focus on indigenous peoples has long led to a limit of a few areas where such research has been operated. These projects were carried out, especially in Western Canada, the U.S., Scandinavia and northern South Australia.
In British Columbia, Prince 2001, a study at Lodgepole Pines by (Pinus contorta ), whose bark long served as the food there. He examined two areas, where access to the main food salmon once and regularly throughout the year, it was therefore interrupted once every now and then. The latter he found at the White Eye Lake. The workshop showed that it came in the years 1810, 1880, 1910 and 1925 to very frequent spalling. In addition, there was between the field strengthens affected in any given year no spatial overlap - it was only once "harvested". The Indians used the bark apparently as an emergency reserve, as a surrogate for the designated dependents in these years or appeared in too small numbers of salmon. Compared area with secure salmon fishing, such clusters of spatial or even temporal nature impossible to detect. They also needed a smaller area in order to provide themselves with food can.
Also for the displacement of people living in northern Scandinavia seeds north CMTs can be evaluated. In some places breaking the peeling bark, which also prepared the seeds as food, from one year to the other from. The Swedes and Finns to the 20th century displaced the seeds in the 18 to the north, knew not bark as food. The oldest finding suggests Rindenschälung Around 800 BC, so that hint of Scandinavia research opportunities that could have their focus in the writing poor or loose sections of the non- Sami history.
Meanwhile, the determination process is so refined that even fossil trees can be examined. The oldest living CMTs could be previously detected in British Columbia. They date from the 12th century.
In Australia, the work focuses on red ( river) gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) and gray box (Eucalyptus moluccana ). The use of these trees for food, and more in demand craft similar to that in North America. Unusually, however, that wood used for the manufacture of a kind of climbing shoe to keep track of possums on trees can. Rhoads published in 1992 that 228 CMTs were detected in an area of 10,000 km ² in south-west Victoria. These are usually located near the former camp of the Aborigines.
Particularly intensively the Bob Marshall Wilderness was studied in Northwest Montana. It covers over 3000 km ² ( with the adjacent wild areas even more than 6000 km ²) and has never been exposed to a forestry use. Also, road construction or agricultural use did not occur here. Nevertheless, the area was inhabited long. So could only be based on the CMTs, the presence of indigenous demonstrate 1665-1938.
In the American Southwest of Zuni CMTs were detected and investigated. Situated on the border between Arizona and New Mexico to large numbers of ponderosa pines can be found with peeling of the edible cambium. Dating and comparisons with known rainfall data show that it is not negotiated by pronounced dry food in times of hardship and but that the most calcium-rich cambium belonged to ordinary food spectrum. Both individuals and groups on a small scale in collaborative work won the tree bark.
Perspectives
No historical source is at high risk with regard to the non-literate cultures, but at the same time as precise as the CMT archives. Precise timing of statements written sources usually possible only by their analysis in the absence. In their entirety, they allow very broad statements, but also require a rigorous methodology and questions which have yet to be developed. An important requirement is the detection of primeval forests, the old growth forests. Therefore, the protection of these areas from environmental, cultural and research purposes, is being promoted.
Countries whose forests, at least partially, are still in almost pristine condition, have only partially, some not yet recognized the potential of these trees. For the study of the history of northern Asia about the CMTs could play an important role, as recent studies show.
In Canada, where the research for almost two decades, largely confined to British Columbia, CMTs are now also detected in other provinces, for the first time in 2001 Nagagamisis Provincial Park in Ontario. The trees are mostly between 80 and 110 years old, some may have about 400
David Garrick has documented solely on Hanson Iceland 1800 CMTs, so that the Kwakwaka'wakw were able to achieve a moratorium to prevent the felling of trees. Garrick recognized in the field of Gitga'at - First Nation, in the Great Bear Rainforest on the west coast of British Columbia, another 300 CMTs were threatened by loggers. You should cut down the trees in order to expand a controversial road at Langford can. In February 2008, the Times - Colonist reported on the eviction of a protest camp on the orders of the city.
Began in 1985 in Washington Gifford Pinchot National Forest a protection program after could be identified at 338 locations over 6000 CMTs. However, only half of the trees was placed under protection.
In the U.S., the interest in protecting the trees grow, especially since not only human factors destroy these historical sources, but also natural as the life expectancy of trees or tree diseases. 17 CMTs were found in the Blue Mountain area in the Pike National Forest, at least 26 in Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument, plus more than 200 -year-old trees in the Manitou Experimental Forest north of Woodland Park. However, most of these standing in the field of Ute ponderosa pines only have a life expectancy of 300 to 600 years. In Indian Grove in Great Sand Dunes National Park there are 72 old ponderosa pines that have been well peeled by Ute 1816-1848. In February 2008, the Colorado Historical Society $ 7 million to invest in various educational and research projects, among them a CMT project in Mesa Verde National Park decided.
That CMTs can also be used in other regions to remarkable researches show two examples from Southern France. In addition, CMT also hold for the pre-and early history options that have been not yet been envisaged.