Graphology

Graphology ( according to the new spelling and graphology ), is the study of handwriting as an expression of character. Graphology is the study of the writing as well as teaching how to connect to certain areas of his personality from the manuscript of a man in literal translation. Graphology is therefore a method of psycho- diagnostics. These writing samples are used, which reflect the usual typeface of the subjects ( for example, letters, notes, records, transcripts ). Unsuitable texts in calligraphy or disguised writings.

During the 20th century, graphology has developed in different directions further: The French graphology dealt further with the study of cause and effect in the manuscript, so drew a more humanities - philosophical aspect to the fore. The German -speaking Graphology found in many natural scientists and physicians resonance, which is why the focus is on watch on the causality of the natural sciences. The Anglo-Saxon, especially the U.S., however, graphology focused on observation and interpretation of individual features. According to investigations and criticism of graphological statements must always be seen on the background of different approaches and methods priorities.

The validity of graphology is controversial. Both opponents and supporters rely on scientific studies. Several authors have concluded that the relationship between handwriting and personality traits scientifically not let prove (see meta-analyzes ). Other authors criticize the studies mentioned regarding the investigation systems that are not appropriate for the review of interpretive psychodiagnostic methods, and refer to studies that exhibit the quality of graphology a positive testimony.

2.1 Development
2.2 people

3.1 Status
3.2 Applications
3.3 training
3.4 Magazines

4.1 Schriftvergleichung
4.2 forensics
4.3 Graphotherapie
4.4 font Psychology

5.1 reputation as pseudoscience
5.2 meta-analyzes
5.3 Opinion of graphological organizations

6.1 Basic Works / Methodology
6.2 Children and Youth Scriptures
6.3 Further literature on graphology
6.4 Other Publications

Methodology

Principle

Graphology assumes that the characteristic type of person to write establishes the possibility of the individual handwriting on the individual personality of a human being to close. Graphology so concerned with track from the manuscript of a man their essential or dominant features to determine their overall impression, so that they can construe characterologically. It is the observation and description of what is now generally referred to as motion, shape and spatial image. In a second step, then it gives a true picture of the behavior, the state of mind of the potential drives and systems, ie created a well-rounded personality picture of the font author

Graphology is not a psychological test in the narrow, test the psychological sense. Certain features can be accurately measured (eg, size, slant ), while others are not measurable, but quantifiable: whether a particular feature (eg, expansive or controlled, original or based on the standard) in a manuscript found, can be yes or no, or be recorded on a multi-level scale. Become writings compared, can always be said in what font the feature is more pronounced. The validity is only partially checked by the usual statistical methods. The focus is on the interpretation and the interpretation.

Approaches and models

The graphological work starts with the feature extraction. This is partly the collection of measurable items of Scripture, partly to the labeling of holistic movements and shapes which are described qualitatively First, the different font features are collected and analyzed. From the totality of characteristics ( eg, rhythm, unity, stiffening degrees), the individual characteristics (such as font size, proportions, pressure strength ) and the specific characteristics (eg special design of signature, alteration of letters, embellishments ) of the handwriting creates a the graphologist character image. In the feature extraction is not yet interpreted. The interpretation is the core of the graphological work. They may be regarded as the inverse of the font creation. While that is incorporated in the font development traits of the writer in the writing movement, is deduced in the characteristic evaluation of the finished writing on the writing movement, and from the latter to the commitments made in them traits of the writer. The interpretation of Scripture is done but not intuitive, but is worked out methodically.

In German-speaking countries, there are the four basic schools of Ludwig Klages, Rudolf Pophal, Robert Heiss and Max powder. As a comprehensive textbooks the works of Müller- Enskat and pan are despite their age still relevant and highly recommended, as is the newer of Wallner et al.. There is a need in the application of scientific knowledge in practice always a synthesis of different directions. This is especially true in psychology and specifically in graphology

The modern computer-based tools to support the graphological work are as well designed so that they sum up the whole range of graphological experience knowledge in the form of expert systems. Examples of these are the programs and HSDetect GraphoPro.

(see also Modern graphology )

History

Development

Seems very early to have formed the idea that could be inferred from the handwriting on peculiarities of the person writing. From ancient times on this subject have by Suetonius have survived.

In the context of modern graphology a work of Camillo Baldi is mentioned: in 1622 wrote the Italian philosopher and physician, his treatise on a method to recognize the nature and quality of a scribe from his writing.

Is known among other things that interested Johann Wolfgang von Goethe for manuscripts and a collection has created it. Furthermore he corresponded among other things with the Zurich pastor and scholar Johann Caspar Lavater.

As the actual founder of modern graphology to Jean Hippolyte Michon ( 1806-1881 ). The French clergy has created the term " graphology ". He collected, arranged and systematized manuscripts after he had observed characteristics. He leaned on the classification of natural sciences: He distinguished between classes ( classes ), families ( familles ), groups ( groupes ) and nuances ( nuances ). He called His principal work, published in 1875 as well as classification of Graphology: the art to know people because of their handwriting.

Jules Crépieux - Jamin took on this framework; he also collected, compared, grouped and classified publications. However, he developed his own system. In his major work published in 1889 L' ABC de la graphologie he divided the font characteristics by genus ( genres ) and species ( espèces).

Elsewhere interested one for the expression of personality in handwriting, as well as in Germany. The development of the research was largely isolated in France and Germany; in this situation, despite occasional approximations in principle little changed. In the tense Franco-German relations, an exchange between scientists of the two countries was not very opportune. Thus, various concepts for analysis and interpretation of the handwriting were also developed in the German-speaking countries. One speaks of " four German schools of graphology " The following compilation shows the most important trends.

People

Ludwig Klages (1872-1956), studied chemistry and later psychology. His book manuscript and character first appeared in 1917 and was frequently reprinted. It tried to justify why the handwriting of a person to allow statements about the character of the writer using the " expression " principle and the " representation principle." It established extensive definitions of characteristics for handwriting interpretation and created tables. After Klages a signature feature of the existence of a force or from the absence of a counter force can be explained.

Rudolf Pophal (1893-1966) was a physician with a focus on neurology and psychiatry. Originally a student of Klages, he has but later developed his own approach and interpreted the handwriting as brain writing. Pophal examined physiological and neurological conditions of writing and directed to the supremacy of the brain centers statements about a person's personality from.

For the Swiss Max Pulver (1889-1952) Deep Psychological aspects played an important role. He has developed a symbolism space for handwriting. It assumes that the directions are right and left and up and down as projection. So the direction to the right symbolizes the future and the "you", the direction to the left symbolizes the past and the "I". The upper zone of a manuscript is a projection for the intellectual and spiritual sphere, the lower zone is a projection for the vital and material realm.

Robert Heiss (1903-1974) examined the development of writing skills in the child and identified three components that determine the writing process: movement, shaping and orientation on the available writing surface. Manuscripts caused by movement and formation on a sheet of paper. These components both have a psychological meaning; On the other hand Heiss assigned its whole set of font characteristics of these components. So he came to a motion picture, shape and image space image of the manuscript. These terms are dominated by hot the basics of writing and recording the interpretation of the handwriting on hot.

Robert Heiss had numerous students who have themselves become professors in part - as Jochen riding mountain, Petra Halder -Sinn, Oskar Lockowandt, Arno Müller, Wolfgang Sehringer, Lothar Michel. On the 100th birthday remembered Jochen driving Berg ( 2003) to him: " Robert Heiss still belonged to the generation of the founder of the institute, which shaped the profile of an entire institution for decades as it is now hard to imagine [ ... ]. In Freiburg, hot led a graphology, term customer, projective testing and together with his team, he created over the years - with highlights between 1950 and 1970 -. A training focus, as in no other institution "

Jochen mountain driving his doctorate in 1961 with the dissertation " Graphometrie ". The Graphometrie wanted to explore without assumption of the validity of graphology. Within the Graphometrie numerous studies with different empirical methods have been carried out. Jochen riding mountain looks a possibility that in the manuscript - among other techniques - can be used in psychological interpretations or as part of a biographical analysis.

From Wilhelm Helmut Müller (1899-1966), a professor at the Technical University of Berlin, and his colleague Alice Enskat (1897-1978) comes the textbook " Graphology diagnostics ". The authors provide in definitions of basic properties after their acquisition mode and differ eg between measurable, countable and estimable characteristics. They provide an overview of conditions of origin of the manuscript and on empirical and experimental foundations, as they presented themselves at the first edition of the book in 1961.

Heinrich pan (1923-1990) was a lawyer and handwriting expert. His " Manual of Graphology " presents a Psychodiagnostics due to graphical complexes. Developed in a comprehensive way pan here graph complexes and psychological types, it is modeled on type doctrines - such as " Introversion " versus " extraversion ". At the same time pan gives a comprehensive overview of the basic science of graphology and presents numerous works from customer expression, movement and brain physiology, as well as symbolism empiricism and experiment.

Oskar Lockowandt (1935-2000) received his doctorate in 1966 with a dissertation on Robert Heiss factor analytic validation of the manuscript with special consideration of projective methods. In numerous publications in the " Journal of anthropology ," which the " Journal of Psychology and font Schriftvergleichung " was later, Lockowandt dealt with diverse topics such as psychology of writing the process of judgment or student writings

In contrast to the empirical research has consistently advocated a hermeneutic approach to graphology Hans Knobloch ( 1910-2004 ). The immediate perception of the psychological Relevant from the manuscript - the graphologist view - is the essential method. In his workshop discussions questions are asked and answered from a holistic perspective.

The psycho- diagnostician Arno Müller (1930-2005) represents one oriented to the interpretation principles of analogy, the generalization and the personal mission statement analysis. This he shows in his historical studies.

Ursula Avé - Lallemant (1913-2004) has dealt extensively with the manuscripts of children and adolescents. Their long years of study she published in a longitudinal analysis. She developed the so-called from their Dynamic Graphology and shined the background of crime young people from the factory offenders in self-expression. It was important for her to glean any negative characteristics of children's handwriting, but to understand difficulties as " distress signals ". During her many years of work, she has developed a small graphical test battery that includes not only the handwriting also star wave test, test and Wartegg tree - drawing test.

Modern graphology

Status

The "modern" Graphology - which mainly developments in the second half of the 20th century are known - based primarily on the graphological classics Klages, Pophal, powder and hot, the differentiated textbooks from pan and Müller & Enskat and Hans Knobloch. The methodology of modern graphology no longer refers to the so-called " signes fixes" the old graphology or symbolic characters in the font, but to Gestalt theory and the recognition of so-called " drive - out and shaping ". Partly Also suitable personality models and deep psychological theories used. For clarity, it should be noted on human facial expressions: Here it is possible to most people, the interplay of various muscle groups, contextual and cultural factors to a gestalt-like whole picture put together and appropriate to interpret. The modern graphology now assumes the handwriting was a comparable amount of muscular, contextual and cultural factors that can be interpreted in a similar manner.

Computer-based tools such as HSDetect and GraphoPro inferior to the work of Graphologinnen and graphologist with neutral scheme.

The rules of the old graphology has tried with a naive understanding of science to reduce to the existence of very small, fixed in their meaning particles through the meticulous inventory smallest font graphic factors, this expression meaningful action. These are firmly connected to properties of the human personality by a quasi- anthropological genre-specific semiotics. The modern graphology, inspired by Klages, is now trying to shift the focus from the individual graphic feature on the structural regularities of human expression events.

In the wake of Klages Hans Knobloch focused on the description of facial expressions analogous figures in the manuscript. His list includes about 14 different forms of expression in manuscripts, but is not to be regarded as complete. It is important that the manuscripts that are jointly assigned to one (or more) of the 14 forms of expression (eg Dranghaftigkeit - functional pleasure and curiosity behavior - depression - euphoria -, etc.) are not related to one another thanks to so-called graphical individual features, but with their blatant graphical differences due to shape paradigmatic expression of identity.

Graphologist understand itself as experts in manuscripts. The design of character images or personal pictures still stands in the center graphological work. It also focuses on writing psychological counseling.

Applications

Graphologist can be commissioned for the analysis of personality development, a partnership counseling, educational counseling, career counseling or personal advice. For advice, the context should be known and if possible also take an oral consultation. As a professional graphologist expert psychologists apply with additional studies and recognized testing in graphology. Graphology analysis also want to contribute to the understanding of historical figures.

See especially in France and in Switzerland personnel managers is relatively common as a decision aid in order to make statements about the personality of a candidate can. Graphology in the world of work also touches on questions of personal rights. One of the therefore developed principles of law is that that no (more or less comprehensive ) Personality Profiles may be created. Regardless of a pragmatic objective seems debatable, which focuses on the potential to " critical behavior " ( an applicant ).

Training

The modern graphology is supported by a number of schools and organizations that provide training, conduct trainings and conferences that contribute to the scientific and ethical issues. In some cases, results in Switzerland, a collaboration with colleges.

Magazines

The Journal of Anthropology ( ZfM ), Zentralblatt für graphology, science and expression character customer, was in succession a published between 1925-1942 magazine 1953 again issued in the 17th year. The reason was, as the editors wrote, " the palpable lack of a journal, which promote expression of scientific anthropology sets itself the goal and aims in particular the maintenance of handwriting analysis. "

As the editor of the professors acted JHSchultz and August cousin. In 1965, took over the publication of associations: the section font Psychology of the Professional Association of German Psychologists, Swiss Graphology Society, the Austrian Society of Psychology, the Klages Society. In 2000, the ZfM was renamed Journal of Psychology and font Schriftvergleichung (ZfS ). Until its setting the end of 2005 articles have been published on methods issues, case studies and extensive statistical studies in a total of 69 vintages. Graphology News continues the tradition of the Journal of Psychology and font Schriftvergleichung.

The journal 'Applied Graphology and personality assessment ' is published by the Professional Association certified graphologist / psychologists eV in Munich and will continuously since 1953, three issues per year in the amount of each 56 pages. As the only German -language journal in printed form it is today at the same time specialized body of six organizations in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It contains regularly translations from foreign journals, congress reports and book reviews.

Interfaces with other disciplines

Schriftvergleichung

Schriftvergleichung is used when you want to clarify whether a document was actually written by the specified person. The term Schriftvergleichung emphasized that the essence of the study is a comparison of the observable facts.

Mostly it comes to signatures or wills, their authenticity has to be checked. Even in cases of anonymous writing can be ascertained with the help of Schriftvergleichung whether a suspected person has actually written the text.

To a certain extent are well-trained and appropriately trained graphologist is able to make Schriftvergleichungen. In court proceedings, a person is called in within Germany on all the cases that may carry the title "Public ordered (r ) and sworn (r ) Experts (r) for Handschriftvergleichung ". In Switzerland, the handling is regulated by the cantons and therefore uneinheitlch.

However, a general rule between graphology and Schriftvergleichung must be clearly distinguished. The first author who has established this requirement, Heinrich pan was: " Graphology is based on the empirical fact that every man his just his characteristic handwriting has ... On this basis have two disciplines ... developed the characterological Graphology and the handwriting identification. The characterological graphology comes to their results only through a further premise, namely that in the handwriting of these express individuality of the people in particular, to be discussed here in detail relationships stand to his character ... It is therefore necessary, the font of expertise significantly from the characterological graphology ... lift .... The characterological Graphology indicated, Scripture compares expertise ".

Forensics

In forensic Forensic Science and manuscripts are examined. Scripture as forensic trace one of the few people directly identifying, factual evidence; thus a relevant approach is given in order in connection with forgery of documents to be able to clarify the question of the author of the manuscript and the question of their authenticity authentic. This physical- technical methods to use to come. It worked, among others, with ultraviolet light, with scanning electron microscope and investigation procedures. This scientifically-sound methods form the base. For the manuscripts investigation but they are not enough. To this end, rather well knowledge and methods are necessary which are described in the graphological, the graphometrischen and the written psychological literature.

The methods and work areas of Schriftvergleichung and forensics complement each other and overlap partially. The forensic handwriting analysis is evidence in legal proceedings.

In Germany, experts are for handwriting analysis publicly appointed and sworn. They work closely with the courts. In Switzerland, the 26 cantons are responsible; the regulations are accordingly inconsistent. The term " writing experts " is not synonymous with " experts in document check ." The latter make chemical tests, tests of machine print, identity cards or stamps.

Graphotherapie

Graphotherapie - in the German language is often of writing movement therapy, speech - is used for the treatment of writer's weaknesses. It is a supported by the graphical expression and operation of the graphical treatment in a general sense. In the specific sense, the influence of movements through specific exercises, especially the descendants of certain Let lettering.

Font psychology

In practice, the term font psychology is often equated with the term graphology. This has among others Teut Wallner criticized 1998: "Font psychology and graphology are now often used as synonyms, although they are - as far as the scientific requirements - clearly different: Since the 60s, the writing psychology is in contrast to graphology as empirically founded and controlled developed method of handwriting diagnostics. "

Lothar Michel in 1984 in favor of a writing psychology as a basic science. Even Michel intended a writing psychology as an empirical science. Unlike Wallner but it was not to Michel handwriting diagnosis or personality psychological diagnosis, but research on the formation conditions of the manuscript. Here is another aspect of the distinction between graphology and handwriting psychology is clear:

Font psychology as a basic science explores the psychological, physiological, write technical and social conditions of origin of handwritten typing services with empirical scientific methods. Under "Font psychology " is to be understood an experiential scientific method of handwriting examination. The results of written psychological research can be used in practice in a variety of areas. These include general psychological counseling, counseling for personal development, partnership counseling, educational counseling, personal counseling. Also writing movement therapy and sign tests for diagnosing eg of school readiness or psychological difficulties should not go unmentioned. Likewise it is to think of the traditional graphological personality pictures and writing psychological analyzes for a better understanding of historical figures and historical events. And finally, writing psychological research may also be used in forensic handwriting analysis.

Criticism and results of scientific studies

Reputation as a pseudo-science

Graphology expert reports that occasionally come in the selection of personnel employed includes a controversial form of psychological diagnosis. Strike a relevant works of German personnel diagnostics on, it becomes clear that the scientific graphology has no meaning and is given only as an example of a invalides method.

The partly existing anecdotes of graphologist of satisfied customers are, like in astrology or fortune telling, due to psychological effects such as the Barnum effect. Graphologist failed so far to demonstrate the value of graphology scientifically, lack of a plausible theory and of statistical evidence to justify the use. So graphologist could not achieve significantly better predictions in double-blind studies, as this was achieved in the control group by random guessing.

The judgment in this method is indirect and completely opaque. Among psychologists graphology applies in HR consulting as unvalide and for applicants in Germany as unpopular. Numerous studies usually come to devastating Validitätsergebnissen. Although correlation coefficients were obtained from r = 0.20 in studies, but non- graphologist came almost entirely to more valid results. If neutral writing samples (ie not the resume ) filed refuse to graphological report completely (r = 0.02). The meta-analysis by Schmidt / Hunter (1998) admits of graphology to no added value when you combine any instrument of personnel selection with the graphology and the additional validity measures.

Meta-analyzes

Although many examples of anecdotal evidence put forward by proponents, is evident in most scientific studies, no evidence of the alleged relationship between handwriting and personality traits of a person. The study location can currently be summarized that the interpretation of the handwriting does not allow insight to the personality and also is not able, for example, the professional performance to predict.

Important in the question of the validity of a method, if possible, not only to consider a few individual studies, but the combination of a large number of studies particularly to take into account - so-called meta-analyzes. In such meta-analyzes graphology has as a method of interpretation of personality traits or even professional success can not exist: As early as 1982 showed a meta-analysis, were included in the data from over 200 studies that graphological methods with no personality characteristics are predictable. Even in later analysis shows that graphologist not come to more valid statements as lay and graphology is not suitable as a method in personnel selection.

The results of the aforementioned studies, however, were in 1988 subjected to a detailed analysis. One comes to the conclusion that all the results from a scientific perspective can be quite a lot of positive psychology interpreted in favor of the font, and one concludes that the authors were not interested in a more positive result probably. Thus, even if the scientific quality of the research described is flawed, they will continue to be led against Scripture psychology into the field.

The discussion thus remain controversial. In addition, studies of manuscripts are suspected ever since, not measurable, not verifiable and therefore not to be reliable. This pressure is likely to have increased in recent years, complained about the competition in the market assessment but exactly this measurability for themselves. So there are several studies which show that graphology expert opinion on the one hand and modern assessments of candidates on the other side correspond to a large extent in terms of the personal characteristics of candidates. If the font analysis is assessed by a professional graphologist created (professional psychologist with additional studies and recognized examination in graphology ) and applied together with other instruments of personality assessment, eg as part of an assessment center and both critical and differentiated, they can provide valuable additional information about the personality deliver.

Opinion of graphological organizations

Around 1985 M. Moore has eight of the world's most important organizations of graphology from the Yearbook of International Organizations ( 1983) contacted and requested a controlled study in which should be shown that the handwriting analysis makes predictions about the characteristics of employees. Four of the organizations did not respond. Of the other four could produce no such a study, only one led him on a non- technical articles of Playboy magazine. Another organization cited a study ( Allport and Vernon, Studies in Expressive Movement, 1933), either without understanding that this work is a negative evaluation of graphology revealed or in the hope that Moore would not check the reference.

In the German-language Internet presence today Graphologenverbände be found partly publications on research, but hardly satisfy the academic standards in order to be at all verifiable. Among these is an opinion on a meta-analysis, but offers no verifiable antithesis, instead, meta-analyzes into question in itself. The document also shows that even over there under graphologist still disagreement which font variables provide meaningful results or what ever objective pursued graphology. The text says " The problem is that in general, not predicted performance, but properties are to be assessed. ". But theories are falsifiable at all only if they provide predictions.

Johann Kaspar Lavater Jochen Fahrenberg Johannes Heinrich Schultz Forer effect Assessment-Center Digital Object Identifier Paul Slovic

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