Kharja

Ḫarǧa (Arabic خرجة, DMG Ḫarǧa, output. Conclusion Pointe ') Pronunciation [' xardʒa ] referred to in the Arabist, hebraistischen and Romanist literature the last " qufl '', that is the final verses of a poem muwaššah.

For the Romanist language and literature, the discovery (SM Stern 1948) of previously about 70 so-called " Romanesque " Ḫarǧas a sensation is that is controversial to this day. These texts are the oldest evidence of Spanish language and probably of Roman poetry ever since the earliest old Spanish Ḫarǧa is dated to before 1042. Such " Romanesque " Ḫarǧas are indeed written Semitic character ( Aljamiado notation), linguistically but partially sealed on Old Spanish, or at least a mixture of languages ​​: old Spanish vocabulary are mixed with Arab- Andalusian dialect words and hybrid Roman- Arab neoplasms to a kind of macaroni between seal what extent. this is pre-existent Romanesque folk poetry at these "Latin" Ḫarǧas, is still disputed among scholars.

The Ḫarǧa - a poem in the poem

The muwaššah is a resulting Moorish al - Andalus stanza Gedichtart with fixed rhyme scheme, which is held in Arabic or Hebrew high-level language. The Ḫarǧa, the closing verses of the last stanza, however, differs from the linguistic norms of the remaining lines of the poem. It is either in Arab-Andalusian vernacular, in Mozarabic mixed language or - completely sealed on Old Spanish - which is rare. This code-switching, the sudden change from one language or language level to another, forming a discontinuity, a break in the whole poem, which gives the Ḫarǧa a special place within a Muwaššaḥs.

The medieval Egyptian literary theorist Ibn Sana al -Mulk (1155-1211) boasts in his preface ( About the technique of muwaššah ) muwaššah his anthology, Dar al - ṭirāz, this peculiar closing verses, the Ḫarǧa, to the skies:

" The Ḫarǧa is the highlight of the muwaššah, its salt, its sugar, its musk, ambergris be; it is the starting and the need to be particularly commendable, it is the final, no, rather the introduction, although it is at the end; when I say: the Introduction, this means that before anything else must be directed to them the meaning of the poet; they must be the one who wants a tight muwaššah, first prepare before he is bound by meter or rhyme, in a moment when he is free and independent, happy and carefree. He has found the reason, he has the cock and puts his head on them. "

The colloquial or - as in the case of the old Spanish Ḫarǧas - mixed language or even foreign-language character of Ḫarǧa gives the seal special local flavor. So the Ḫarǧa formed a foreign body, it is so to speak a poem in the poem, usually in the form of a wailing woman song.

The first verses of the last verse of a poem muwaššah (Arabic Tamheed, words of transition) lead - in Arabic or Hebrew Hochprache - the Ḫarǧa one, both thematically and by a inquit formula, a ( verbum dicendi ). It often speaks a loving girl who turns to the beloved or a confidant styling, mother, girlfriend or sister, and the girl fell in love, "said / painted / complained / sang" - in the language of Christians ( to the code initiate switching). The girl is overwhelmed by love, loss. It sings of the beauty of the beloved, lures him to love:

"Non t'amaréy, con illa al - Sarti ' To Tayma jalja'li ma'a qurti "

"I 'll love you, but, under the condition The fact that you unite my anklets with my earrings. "

Same motif folk songs in which love girl longing for her beloved sing, are also found in old - Galician - Portuguese Cantigas de amigo again. Therefore, since the discovery (1948 ) of the old Spanish Ḫarǧas was often assumed that the Arabic and Hebrew poet from al - Andalus were inspired to design their Ḫarǧas of independent Romanesque Volksliedchen. The old Spanish Ḫarǧa would therefore be a quoted romanesque poem in oriental poem. This view is taken as evidence for the thesis that it had already long before the first known Trobadorlyrik of William IX. of Poitiers, where a separate Romanesque Volksyrik on the Iberian Peninsula ( 1100 ). The earliest old Spanish Ḫarǧa is dated to before 1042. Thus, the Mozarabic Ḫarǧas would be not only the oldest completely preserved texts Ibero- Romanic language forms but also the earliest evidence of lyric poetry in Romance-language par excellence. The Romanist and Aljamiadoforscher Reinhold Kontzi represents in an essay from 1980, this Romanesque origin theory:

" We can now say with certainty that long before the first known troubadour lyric was a Roman folk poetry in the Iberian Peninsula. You see ... today clearly links between the poetry of Ḫarǧas, the Galician - Portuguese cantigas d' amigo and the Castilian villancicos of the 15th century. Yes, we may folk poetry, which manifests itself in the mozarbischen Ḫarǧas, bring in conjunction with the choruses of northern France [ Virelai ] and the Strambotti Italy. "

Difficulties in decoding the Aljamiado Verses

The tradition of Andalusian girl songs, the earliest fragments of Roman poetry from the 11th century, the Romance reached only in 1948, ie 900 years late. The discoverer of this old Spanish Ḫarǧas, the Hungarian Hebrew scholar Samuel Miklos Stern (1920-1969), was interested in the oriental literature rarely encountered stanza poem genus muwaššah. He had been alerted to the muwaššah anthology Dar al - Arab poet Ibn tiraz of Sana al -Mulk (1155-1211) in the works of Arabists Martin Hartmann and Julián Ribera. In their preface, a poetics About the technique of muwaššah, provides Ibn Sana al -Mulk on the theory that the literary genre of the Moorish al - Andalus muwaššah was invented. In addition, some of their Ḫarǧas be held even in Romanesque vernacular. Until now, however, a muwaššah manuscript had nowhere with such a Romanesque Ḫarǧas found. As S. M. Stern in reading Muwaššaḥas of medieval Sephardic poet Judah ha -Levi came across puzzling Ḫarǧas whose consonantal sequence in Hebrew revealed no sense, he came up with the idea that it could possibly Andalusian here to upgrade these Inferred closing verses in could act - Romanesque vernacular. The oldest Hebrew manuscripts with muwaššah poems come from finds at the end of the 19th century in the Geniza of the Ben- Ezra Synagogue to Fostat ( Old Cairo ) had been made.

Deciphering this traditional notation in Aljamiado Ḫarǧas involves special difficulties. One must remember that the Roman Jarchas are delivered in Hebrew or Arabic consonantal script. It lacks the vowels. Moreover, it is at the muwaššah manuscripts to transcripts that do not come from al - Andalus, but from the Orient. The Oriental copyist who did not understand Spanish, Romanesque Jarchas had to appear puzzling. So it certainly came to copying errors in the consonantal text. Therefore, the Hebrew scholar, Arabists and Romanists trying since 1948 to restore the old Spanish, revokalisierten text in the conjectures, emendations and interpretations are not unanimous. A compilation of such different readings has put together in her thesis Almawood Rivera.

Text example: an old Spanish Ḫarǧa - handed in Arabic Alphabet

Here an example of a Mozarabic Ḫarǧa from an Arab muwassaha - love poem N ° 22 of the Andalusian - Arab poet Muhammad ibn ' Ubada (11th century).

The presentation follows the edition of the Spanish Arabists and Romanists Galmés Álvaro de Fuentes.

In a first step ( 1 ) Álvaro de Fuentes Galmés transliterated the Arabic consonantal script of Aljamiado manuscript into Latin alphabet. In a second step ( 2 ) he revokalisiert this consonant sequence that makes no sense in the Arabic language, so that transcription can reappear the old Spanish original.

1 The transliteration of the Arabic script to the Latin alphabet results in a consonantal sequence that makes no sense in the Arabic language:

2 After philological interpretation of the Aljamiadotextes in the Arabic language ' senseless ' consonant sequence is revokalisiert, and transcription can occur again following the old Spanish text:

3 Translation into today's Spanish ( Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes ):

Alan Jones translates the Tamheed (words of transition), the Arabic verses that precede this old Spanish Ḫarǧa and they initiate as follows:

To edit history of the old Spanish Ḫarǧas

1948 published Samuel Miklos Stern twenty Mozarabic Ḫarǧas that he had recognized in Hebrew Muwaššaḥas as old Spanish texts. Its written in French essay in a journal of Spanish Arabists: Al- Andalus XII (1948 ), pp. 299-346, is entitled:

This article was a sensation and sparked an avalanche of publications and controversies in the Arabist and Romanist experts, which are even today not yet reached after 60 years to an end. Thus, the British Arabist Richard Hitchcock was already recorded in his critical bibliography of over 250 books and articles that dealt since Stern's essay written in 1948 with the Ḫarǧa - issue in 1977.

1952 published the Spanish Arabist Emilio García Gómez ( 1905-1995 ), publisher of Al -Andalus, 24 Ḫarǧas old Spanish, which he had discovered in Andalusi Muwaššaḥas believed. He edited the same way as Samuel M. Stern, that is, it transliterated and transcribed the Arabic text into Latin alphabet and interprets the verses as fragments of an independent Roman poetry.

1960 appears the issue of Klaus Heger: Previously published Ḫarǧas and their interpretations, in which he aims to cover all variants reading and interpretations of all hitherto known Jarchas.

Emilio García Gómez In 1965 his book Las jarchas romances de la serie árabe en su marco out ( German: the Romanesque Ḫarǧas from the Arabic manuscripts in their context ), in which he, the full Arab muwaššah poems, from which came the old Spanish Ḫarǧas transliterated and nachdichtete to interpret them from the total poetic context can out and to make them non - orientalist, and in particular Romanists accessible.

1973 sows the British Arabist Richard Hitchcock first to doubt the accuracy of the reconstruction of Ḫarǧas by Emilio García Gómez. A unique interpretation of the consonant sequences in the Aljamiadotexten the Muwaššaḥas was not possible. He advocates the oriental origin theory of bilingual Jarchas whose Romanesque sprinklings should give the Muwaššaḥas only local color. However, he bases his criticism only to the Arabic manuscripts and leaves the clearer Hebrew Aljamiadotexte aside.

1977 appears the critical bibliography of British Arabists Richard Hitchcock.

1980 criticized the British Arabist Alan Jones the previous Ḫarǧa interpretations in the same direction as his colleague Hitchcock. He also denies the thesis that the Ḫarǧas Romanesque metric followed. Richard Hitchcock calls for a return to the original Arabic manuscripts and strongly urges a critical palaeographic facsimile edition of the " so - called Romance kharjas " to:

"The long honeymoon period When the original texts have Remained seemingly immune from critical scrutiny Has now to be Brought to to end. [ ... ] Clearly the whole of Kharja scholarship stands or falls on the reliability of the available manuscript texts. "

Published in 1988 Alan Jones a first paleographically exact edition and analysis of all 42 previously discovered in Arab Muwaššaḥas Romanesque Ḫarǧas. It also offers Romanists, who are not of the Arabic script and language powerful, reliable text-critical work basis.

The first verses of the last stanza of the muwaššah poem (Arabic Tamheed, words of transition), which the Romanesque Jarcha both thematically and by a inquit formula ( verbum dicendi ) as cited Mädchenlied - in Arabic - take will each complete in reproduced facsimile and transliteration. The Ḫarǧa sections themselves are then carefully analyzed letter by letter. First, a purely consonantal transliteration is made, where readings, conjectures and emendations are discussed taking into account metric criteria. Then possible vocalizations critical comments, which is not always a complete old Spanish text comes about.

For 1988, the Arab Aljamiadotexte were made available in facsimiles of the original manuscripts to the public for the first time - only forty years after its discovery. Such paleographically exact edition and analysis of the Romanesque Jarchas from the Hebrew manuscripts can wait until today (2010 ) on you.

Launched in 1994, the Spanish linguist and Arabist Galmés Álvaro de Fuentes (op. cit. Pp. 30ff ) in response to the allegations of his British colleagues R. Hitchcock and A. Jones his edition of 28 Jarchas (12 from 16 from Arab and Hebrew Muwaššaḥas ) which he referred to as " perfect or quasi- perfect".

1996 appears a supplementary volume to the critical bibliography of Richard Hitchcock (two parts): Part I. Books and articles in European languages ​​and Part II Books and articles in Arabic. The authors are Richard Hitchcock and Consuelo López- Morillas: The Kharjas: A critical bibliography. Supplement N ° 1 ( see Related links )

1998 edited the Spanish Arabist Federico Corriente the complete corpus of all 68 known to date old Spanish Ḫarǧas: 42 Arab and 26 from Hebrew Muwaššaḥas.

2004 bring Henk Heijkoop and Otto Zwartjes an extensive bibliography on the subject muwaššah, Zagal and Ḫarǧa out - with almost 3,000 titles relevant information ( see Related links )

Complaint made to the text manipulations in the Ḫarǧa Emilio García Gómez editions '

In his 1988 published palaeographical analysis of the Romanesque Ḫarǧas rises Alan Jones Emilio García Gómez against the accusation of text manipulation:

" " Not one transcription [ Emilio García Gómez in: Venticuatro jarchas, 1952 ] is completely Call accurate in some cases, to be fair, the only concern Deviations minor matters of vocalization, but in others the errors are serious [ ... ] All who.. have relied on them have been perforce misled. "

In old age of 86 years don Emilio García Gómez replied, even with a hundred-page pamphlet: El Escándalo de las jarchas en Oxford on the sharp accusations Alan Jones ' and trying it - arguing to the point - to invalidate all points.

Otto Zwartjes also finds Jones ' sharp criticism of work and " ad hominem " of Jarcha pioneer covered, especially Emilio García Gómez had himself emphasizes in his writings always the preliminary Chartakter his Ḫarǧa editions.

On the debate about the original question: Romanesque folk poetry or Arab art poetry?

The question of whether the Ḫarǧas really go back to a Romanesque folk poetry is, until today (2010 ) is still not decided.

For the Romanesque origin thesis speaks to a motivliche the relationship of the Cantigas de amigo Jarchas with, which can indicate an Ibero-Romance Tradititionslinie. Second, the oriental poetry knows no such woman songs in which love girls express their love:

This opinion is also Stacey L. Parker Aronson:

"What surprises many readers who possess preconceived notions about Muslim women and Their place within Muslim society is the candor with Which female desire is overexpressed in the jarchas. "

The British Arabists Richard Hitchcock and Alan Jones, however, represent the Arabic origin thesis and argue that according to their investigations follow the ' Jarchas ' the Arab metric and not, as previously thought, the Romanesque. Richard Hitchcock represents even a radical Arab origin theory: the Ḫarǧas are not written in Old Spanish, but the vulgar Andalusian Arabic with many Romanesque sprinklings.

The Spanish linguist and Arabist Galmés Álvaro de Fuentes, however, of the opinion that it is very well RELATES to fragments of an independent Roman love poetry at the Ḫarǧas. He accuses the representatives of Arab origin theory, they have neglected the Hebrew manuscripts. It is a not -explanatory circumstance when Romanesque Jarchas again would find in almost same variants in Arabic and Hebrew Muwaššaḥas and there had been no pre-existing old Spanish song, in the tradition of the Cantigas de amigo and villancicos, which provides us with this cryptic manner were. The Ḫarǧas are the oldest fragments of Roman poetry in general, older than the artful troubadour poetry of Occitan in France, that of the first troubadour, William IX of. , Count of Poitiers and Duke of Aquitaine ( 1100 ).