Appropriate technology

An appropriate technology is seen as the knowledge about paths to achieving appropriate technical problem solving, which opened to man new possibilities for action to deal with a specific technical problem to the extent possible efficiently, by providing for a new technical goods and tools, which, to a environment exactly adapted to help meet essential needs and connected with it, may also give rise to economic activity, to enable other technological transfer or development without destroying local subsistent economic structures or ecological foundations of life. On the technical level to resolve problems related to production technical know -how for the production of the decisions for the project in the eye of goods and tools, on the human level it refers to the embedding of the use of these goods and tools in a socio-economic and cultural context.

In essence, therefore, appropriate technology have the following conceptual logical dimensions of meaning:

• A technology is adapted functional of the task.
• A technology is adapted in use around.

Importance in the narrow sense

The above general - linguistic meaning experiences as a concept in the theory of " Development Economics " - this is the economic theory of developing countries - a more precise delimitation and specification. Here, appropriate technology, in contrast to a capital-intensive and labor-saving import (high) technology, a technological needs and capabilities of developing countries " appropriate technology ", which focuses primarily on the core problems of lack of capital, unemployment and low technical and scientific know -how. When production switched to supply the local population with simple household goods, then labor-intensive manufactures, reducing marginality, educated purchasing power and engineering and technology knowledge are being elaborated and learned. The concept of adapted technology is based on the abundant and unused production factor labor. Since most national economies of developing countries are not sealed off from the influence of the world economy, the concept of customized technology can not limitless and implement at will. Rather, market conditions must be thoroughly involved in project planning (cf. next chapter ). According to this narrower meaning of the concept of adapted technology is applied in the development cooperation. In academic and university circles is usually the narrower meaning variant of qualification if of " appropriate technology " is mentioned.

In the past, appropriate technologies have gained some importance in development aid projects. Such projects are usually supported by non-governmental organizations, grassroots movements or religious or ideological action groups. With the development projects well as state or private institutions of the respective developing countries are often involved in the project activities. Governments from industrialized countries are also partly involved; However, as a result of enforcing the liberalization of markets in developing countries, and because of their own strong industrial economics orientation measure the political institutions of the developed countries in the use of appropriate technologies only small chances of success.

The area of ​​application of the adapted technology is limited to environments that have the human and technical resources to successfully use the technology. Otherwise, the investments do not achieve their desired payback period. Especially for development aid projects, this criterion is important (see the following chapter).

Responsibility for development, technology adaptation and control

A general difficulty is that in the course of enforcement of neoliberal capitalism economic distribution problems are exacerbated and consequently experienced gains in resources, a one-tailed distribution. Engineers in all areas should be given awareness, which causes the development of technology, what impacts can be expected and that in principle a large responsibility is to initiate development processes and to direct or influence. Considering the economic conditions of the world economy, it can not be disregarded that just one of the aggravating economic pressure engineers, scientists, technicians and managers can tempt solely to orient technology developments in the profit and toss aside sustainability concerns.

Engineers need to clarify for whom, ie for which target group a technology to be developed is determined what benefits it brings with it the importance it deserves and how they adapted to a specific purpose and a specific environment can be used ... This is the subject of technology management. So there is appropriate technologies that are specially tailored for use in developing countries, where you will ensure that sustainable development goes hand in hand with their application. An adaptation for use in a particular environment must be specially prepared for it.

The fact that in the context of ideological education and social action specific technologies also limits must be set, it is clear, if you know that certain technology products can develop such destructive forces that endanger the continued existence of mankind, it was the fact that these forces within a short be unleashed, or about the fact that the effects only in the course be unleashed by decades. This holds equally for nuclear weapons as for originating from anthropogenic greenhouse gases emitted during industrial processes climate change. Set boundaries is achieved primarily by political and technical control, but the responsibility can not be left only to the politicians. Engineers, scientists, technicians and managers who are at the cutting edge of technological developments tight turn, must think and participate.

Certainly neither gentle high technologies in industrialized countries still appropriate technologies can be used in developing countries and in underdeveloped regions limit the beneficiaries of market pressures mistakes when dealing with technology, which has been producing economy in conventional ( capitalist ) and put to use, but is the conception those technologies to the sluggish reversal and reorientation of the recent past, at least countered by an alternative. Due to its sustainable nature (in the sense of a longer time -lasting effect ) move smooth high technologies and appropriate technologies the needs of people go back to being the focus of the development requirements. However, they must be able to develop necessary for this effect in a harsh economic environment.

Use in developing countries or in under-developed regions

Developed concepts

The " appropriate technology " ( engl. appropriate technology ) is an evolved form of the so-called " intermediate technology " (English intermediate technology), a concept that for the economies of developing countries designed by the economist E. F. Schumacher in the 1960s for the first time and later, in 1973, in a book entitled " Small is beautiful " (Eng. translator's ud T.: " The return to the human scale" ) processed. Schumacher criticized that the major problems of developing countries, such as poverty, underemployment and rural migration had not been solved in the up to this time carried out development projects and these were also saddled with capital-intensive technologies currency withdrawal and major environmental problems. Therefore Schumacher called for a "intermediate technology" to German, an intermediate technology that superior to the traditional technology widely, at the same time should be easier, cheaper and more freely than the high technology of the developed countries but. Schumacher demanded that the new intermediate technology should be labor intensive and human traits; she should be between rake and tractor, between machete and combine. He described the products of the new intermediate technology as a small engineering ( motto: Small is beautiful ). With his demands, he sparked a debate about appropriate technology concepts for developing countries.

The core content of his concept have been summarized in four technology characteristics:

• Small size ( smallness )
• Simplicity ( simplicity )
• Low cost of capital (capital - cheapness )
• Gentleness (non -violence ).

The debate launched led to a number of publications that have dealt with this issue. Institutions and professionals began to deal with Schumacher considerations. The politicians of developing countries initially refused to accept the concept of "intermediate technology", the objection vorbringend that they should be as desperate to get a second-rate technology. Through the mediation of the United Nations was finally decided in the early 1970s to the term " appropriate technology " ( appropriate technology ), then the even Schumacher himself finally took over. In the professional world created countless definitions and criteria catalogs: The original concept of Schumacher has been modified.

The authors of the Brace Research Institute 's Handbook of Appropriate Technology have developed a detailed list of criteria for appropriate technology:

• Appropriate technology should be in accordance with local, cultural and economic conditions, that is with the human, material and cultural resources of the community.
• The machines and production processes are to be held or controlled repair of the population.
• Appropriate technology should, wherever possible, locally available resources use.
• If imported resources and technologies are used, the community should have some control over.
• Appropriate technology should, wherever possible, locally available energy sources use.
• You should also be environmentally friendly.
• You should minimize cultural disruptions.
• You should be flexible, so that the community is not in itself goes into systems that turn out to be ineffective and inappropriate later.
• Research and service activities should, wherever possible, integrated and executed on the spot, so that the relevance of the research for the welfare of local people, maximizing the local creativity, involvement of local residents in technological developments and the synchronization of the research ensured with field activities will.

The new came into focus considerations that move away the concept of customized technology from the original concept Schumacher, are essentially the additional embedding the use of technology in a social and cultural context, the fact that appropriate technology bears no exclusive claim, but as a transitional stage and be regarded as an interim solution for developing economies is that exists as a partial solution in addition to higher technologies, the fact that the use of appropriate technology interacts with other sub- areas of social life, such as the finance of banks in the developing countries with their financial models and financial products ( micro-credit etc. ), further with the research activities of the institutions. The design of the concept of customized technology also take into account small - or medium-sized business producibility, and beyond that are not only the supply of machinery and production technology, but also know- how, organizational knowledge, technical training and production experience for the success of projects of importance.

Practical use of appropriate technologies: case studies

Wood -saving cooking stoves in Guatemala

In the developing world, cooking is widely used on open fires outdoors in general. This type of cooking has the population some advantages, but it is also associated with disadvantages. The advantages can be mentioned here: the reduction of the risk of fire, improved communication with the environment as well as the heating of the water by the sun, making the preparation time can be significantly shortened. The disadvantage of this form of cooking that is lost through the open fireplace a lot of energy. This means that could cook longer at a closed fireplace with the amount of energy used. For this reason, the population must consume more firewood than is necessary. The women and children are often a few hours a day busy trying to collect firewood and put it back distances of several kilometers.

At this point, we refer to the example of Burkina Faso. In this country, which overlaps the southern edge of the Sahel in the north of its territory, only small forest stands are available to all, reduce abundance they do every year in a gigantic scale. The capital city of Ouagadougou, the heating energy with enormous expenditure of energy over distances of 100 km has to be transported. One can imagine that as the energy costs of the population are unnecessarily high. Due to the intensity of the firewood collecting the settlement areas near woods are getting poorer and the paths that must be traveled, ever longer. The derived fuels are unproductive energy sources; their extraction requires a lot of time if they are obtained from field and forest. The clearing of woodland for firewood promotes the leaching of the soil and erosion; and the use of manure cut the country's scarce fertilizer. Since the ecological risk is assessed relatively high in this type of cooking, and is expected by the ever-increasing demand for wood with a worsening shortage of wood in the future, we began developing wood -saving stoves. First, this concept has been implemented in Guatemala; it should then be transferred in a further step to parts of the Sahel including Burkina Faso. However, it should be noted that, while in Guatemala cooked on open fires, but does not lie in the open. It was especially important in this case that these ovens were relatively inexpensive to manufacture, and that they could offer the housewives some cooking and comfort that you could keep the huts smoking free. The specially developed for Guatemala shape of the furnace is called " Lorena stove". The name is composed of lodo ( mud ) and arena ( sand). This furnace could be built easily even under the guidance of, and be adjusted according to the needs of the family, about the size of the pots as well as in height. The use of local, well-known resources such as clay, laterite and metals has resulted almost inevitably. Now for the women, it was possible to cook instead of standing stooped cooking before. Apart from the comfort gained this led to a decrease in back pain in the Guatemalan women. The Lorena stove has seen a great success in Guatemala.

Encouraged by this success, we made ​​a mental note to use this oven in other developing countries. Among other things, we also planned an operation of this oven in the particularly hard hit by the firewood crisis Sahel. However, this resulted in unexpected difficulties: Here the scarcity of wood was not a decisive factor for the use of the oven. Collecting wood is there traditionally seen as work, and for this reason there is not the desire to change that fact. Furthermore, the cooking habits in the Sahel very different from those in Guatemala. In the highlands of Guatemala is cooked in the house while you cook in the Sahel outdoors. This fact is certainly also due to climatic differences. The Lorena stove could not say, because the cottages offer there often is not enough space for an oven and also in the tents of an unbearable heat would arise in the Sahel. In addition, the hearth in Africa is often fraught with a certain symbolism. So many places, the newly wed couple will be awarded three stones for the open fireplace in the family formation.

The dissemination of the Lorena stove in Indonesia was planned. Here, then, it was found that the avoidance of qualms in the huts that had just contributed to the outstanding success in Guatemala, proved to be crux in Indonesia: Due to the climatic conditions in Indonesia, the smoke is desirable to insects of the in-house no food keep. Using the example of the Lorena stove can be seen very well that a supposedly appropriate technology can prove to be really adapted in a particular case and may encounter unexpected barriers to moving into a different culture. This means that a technical product for each constellation to be terminated in a matched version, if there is such, that it can find acceptance.

The "Adjusted oven" must take into account the socio-economic realities. By making this small-scale furnaces for low -cost production will be encouraged; and jobs are created. In addition, it comes to income savings by reducing energy consumption, for this money other important purchases can be made ​​, leading to an increase in demand in the local economy. In addition, it is independent of foreign experts. An important first step has been done through the use of this adapted technology, dying forests in developing countries to halt. The saving effect affects in the acceptance of new furnaces not always like this, as you would expect. On the part of women in Guatemala who were responsible for the acquisition of the furnace, in many cases the reduced risk of injury to the children was given as the main reason for the purchase of a furnace.

In this connection it should be pointed to another appropriate technology. These are the so-called " witch's kitchen " that comes in the cities of Latin America mainly apply. Usually cooked in the cities with kerosene. The kerosene is there though mostly subsidized by the state, yet it remains unaffordable for many poor families. For this reason one has an "old technology" level-headed, which was known from Europe. For this purpose, a particularly strong insulated cooking box was designed in the after cooking the pot is placed inside. Since the cooking box has an extremely good insulation, so cooks the contents of the pot without further supply of energy on. This results in an energy savings of 30-40 % the mere fact that the power supply is slightly restricted. Even with this technique, a preparation is possible to measure.

Biogas plants in Cameroon

In order to increase agricultural production in Cameroon, put one biogas plants, especially against the backdrop of the ever -increasing prices for mineral fertilizers. An intensification of livestock was one of the plans. The livestock in large firms represented an innovation, as by then the animals were kept free and so often the resulting manure was lost as energy source. Through the construction of biogas plants you tried feeding with appropriate technology the accumulating manure good use.

The biogas plants provide for Cameroon is a reasonable technology because organic waste is generated anywhere, and are a commodity that should be exploited. In addition, there also the prevailing tropical climate is particularly favorable to this technology. Methane bacteria which are necessary for this process to work at temperatures between 4 and 60 ° C. However, a small temperature drop of 2 ° C already leads to a noticeable decrease in gas production. At a constant temperature of about 20 ° C more methane gas is produced than with minor fluctuations. The methane gas is produced by a degradation process with bacteria of air. For the filling of these biogas plants animal and human feces, as well as leaves, kitchen and garden wastes are suitable. Most of the resulting biogas plants in Cameroon have a volume of about 5 to 7 m³. Even with a modest livestock can already cover the demand for gas for cooking for a large family. So already be created from 1 m³ of manure within 24 hours at a temperature of about 10 ° C. for about 30 liters of methane gas. At a temperature of about 40 ° C yields approximately 2000 liters methane. To ensure the proper functioning of such a plant, the daily supplying is required. The resulting gas is varied usable. This can cook, is still a use for electricity generation and as a fuel for engines is possible. After just 42 days after commissioning of the plant, it is the first time win the digested sludge, which can be used as high quality fertilizer. Due to the biogas plant, the dilemma of the farmers is solved, whether they should use the dung as fuel or as fertilizer for the fields. One kilogram of wet manure, which is processed in a gas system that generates eight or nine times more useful heat, as if he were dried and then burned. Moreover, the same amount of manure results in 43% more fertilizer than if he 'd just thrown on the dung heap. However, the construction of such systems turns out to only be useful if enough organic waste accumulates. The construction of these facilities is not associated with major difficulties, the bell jar can be made ​​for example of scrap metal. Local businesses assume the production, characterized effect on employment.

As a result project in Cameroon came out that especially those who were able to benefit, who has plenty of animals, and thus were able to give the biogas plants the required input. The very poor part of the population was of benefit to the biogas plants excluded. The employment effects achieved fell from default.

Sugar production in India

To produce white crystal sugar, twelve steps must be performed, which are mentioned below: The weigh-in and unloading of sugarcane, crushing and grinding, followed by purification and filtration. Later the thereby resulting juice is evaporated and cooked further steps are crystallization and the centrifugal separation, it is carried out at a later time, the drying and bagging of the sugar.

The sugar production takes place in two different types of sugar factories. In this case, the other in the known as " OPS - operating " form the so-called open - crucible Sulfitationsprozess (English open pan sulfitation ), the appropriate technology, dar. Furthermore, there is another form of simplified production. Here, the chemical process is simplified; one speaks in this connection of the vacuum pot - Sulfitation. In the OPS factories all processes must be continuously monitored by individuals; in the VTS - production, however, a centralized control is possible. The human work force is in the adapted technology is still needed because there are no electrical pumps used and so the sugar juice of certain processes still has to be stirred by hand. So it is not surprising that the unskilled workers are employed in the OPS factories for other purposes than cleaning tasks. From the above it is clear that in such factories more and more workers are employed than in high-tech factories.

Due to the small-scale sugar production in advantages. In the rural areas can be created as a considerable number of jobs. This additional employment falls in the period between the order of the fields and the harvest. A large sugar factory in Bardoli employed 1971/72 in addition to the permanent workers 350 seasonal workers for 200 days. Furthermore, there is an advantage by the sugar mills, as they have a 25 - 40 % higher price for the sugarcane pay than other customers. Are the sugar factories distributed fairly evenly across the country, so this results in a decrease in transport costs, since the average path that must be traveled, no longer is so long. In a comparison of the two types of factory one comes to the conclusion that the appropriate technology significantly positive impact on the employment situation than the modern version. The results from India are also confirmed by the results of Ghana. While modern factory that is needed only 476 permanent and 219 seasonal workers in Ghana, the factory with the adapted technology could employ 700 permanent and 3,000 seasonal workers. However, one should also mention that the modern factories are superior in a long season of adapted technology in terms of cost of production per unit. However, in a short season, it is just the opposite.

Water heating by solar energy in Turkey

The method of Wasseraufwärmens by solar energy is used mainly in the Aegean Sea, on the Mediterranean coast and in some areas of Central Anatolia, even in the villages in these areas for years. The method is simple: a water tank that is well insulated and resembles the shape of a thermos flask, is placed on the roof of the house as needed with 100 to 500 liters. On the sunny side of the roof of a plate-shaped thermal solar collector is attached, which warms the water in the tank thanks to solar energy. Because of the good insulation of the water tank, the water is even in the morning warm. Since the tank is made especially for private homes on the roof, the water flows through a line inserted down easy, for this reason, one does not need extra pump that pumps the water down. Man, this method has not so much reason applied especially in the villages on the Mediterranean coast and in some villages in Central Anatolia, because that is environmentally friendly, so far makes this procedure wood or fossil fuels obsolete and much labor and time saving, but for the simple reason, because most villages had no electricity. In the villages, which were developed in terms of electricity, it came up about a decade ago is not rare to power outages, so that the solar thermal water heating was attractive for them. From just been said apart, the water is heated in coal-fired tubs in most households still. Of course this is also labor-intensive, as only brought in coal and the oven must be heated. Until the water is heated, it takes about 20 - 25 minutes. For these reasons, of course, is powered by solar energy water warmers considering the time, cost efficiency, comfort and, of course, not least from the standpoint of environmental friendliness a good thing.

Regarding the employment effects of the solar energy powered water heater it would be too euphoric, to say that large employment effects were created in Turkey by this technology; but conversely, it would also be unfair to disqualify the jobs created as a very insignificant. Especially in the Aegean and the Mediterranean region there are now in almost every small town one to two workshops that have specialized in the field of solar energy. Solar energy can be used not only in the water heater but also in energy and in the heating of greenhouses. According to estimates, there are alone in Mersin (a city on the Mediterranean coast) and around eleven large and small specialized providers. These providers about 77 people are employed (as of 1997). Overall, these relatively young and among the population of the mentioned region is very popular technology has indeed led only to moderate, direct and indirect positive effects on employment, however, and also made ​​people's lives much easier an important contribution to environmental friendliness.

Criticism

Criticism of the implementation of development projects with appropriate technologies comes among others by Dr. Helmut cell, had the opportunity to deal in a two-year stay in Tanzania with local realities. Cell complains that, although the relevant institutions in Tanzania have had a long list of prototypes, a commercial launch of products of Adjusted technology has rarely not been up to, since they have almost never reached market maturity. In most cases they were developed haphazardly, without the need for previous feasibility studies or market surveys were created. They often exhibited functional defects and were characterized by poor value for money. In addition, they had often compete with higher-quality foreign import goods. Cell detects that the ( labor market friendly ) labor-intensive mode of production is in a contradiction in principle to achieve good price-performance ratio. Cell further noted that its competent institutions have hardly worked properly with the domestic industry and that their development of the prototypes has been not effective geared towards reaching the production stage, but was rather led by self-preservation interests. One product of the adjusted cell technology could make out there than competitive.