Indo-Aryan

Indo-European (or Indo-Europeans ) are the linguistic understanding according to the spokesman of the presupposed, only reconstructed Indo-European proto-language.

The connection of the Primitive Indo-European language with prehistoric cultural groups is motivated by the fact that the close lexical and grammatical relationship of the associated languages ​​between Iceland and only by a primitive society and not by just a Sprachbund - extinct - Western China and Northern India is explainable. Ethnological statements can not be derived. On the contrary, most assumed that the speakers today have adopted the language of immigrant groups in Europe and gave up their Oldspeak.

Many scientists assume about the period 4000-3000 BC for the Urindogermanische. One reason stems from the techniques, such as the Wagenbaues that are found in the common vocabulary.

• 2.4.1 Balkans
• 2.4.2 Central European theories

• 6.1 genetically
• 6.2 linguistically
• 6.3 archaeologically
• 6.4 historically
• 6.5 Religious Studies
• 6.6 generally

Indo-European and Indo-European

By comparative linguistic research discovered William Jones ( Indologist ) end of the 18th century that many languages ​​have descended in Europe and the Middle East from a common proto-language (see: Indo-European languages). The Danish- French researcher Conrad Malte -Brun used for this purpose in 1810 the name " langues indo - germaniques ".

" Indo-European " is a linguistic term of the bracket for those days, most west ( Iceland ) and most eastern (Indian languages) known languages ​​of this language family. The Celtic languages ​​were not yet recognized as Indo-European language; the Anatolian and not even discovered the two Tocharian languages. Settlement Historically and linguistically, this term is equally questionable, since not included, in the Scandinavian settlement of Iceland in the late 9th century each westernmost Indo-European languages ​​to the Germanic, but since about the turn of time to the Romanesque and prior to the Celtic languages. And the easternmost Indo-European languages ​​of the Indian subcontinent, Bengali and Hindi Asamiya Although not belong to the group of Indo-Aryan, but within them.

The common elsewhere in Europe today geographical term Indo-European is both a staple term by including the two outer sub-continents in which one most of the languages ​​of the Indo-European language family even before the colonial period.

The German -language philology traditionally used the term Indo-European, while outside the German-speaking Indo-European (English Indo -European, French Indo- Européen ) is in use. Both terms are identical in content and thus synonymous. The term Indo-European is the older. The term ' Indo-European ' is reminiscent of the notion German linguists, their own people ( Germany was of the classically educated academics shaft like to Germania Latinized ) and the Nordic-Germanic peoples to come to the fore.

Ideas on the origin and spread of the Indo-European language

The similarities of the known Indo-European languages ​​presuppose a common preform and a limited " homeland " or expression field. After all our knowledge, these as well as other languages ​​could have spread only through the continued influence of people with appropriate power, prestige and internal cohesion. Each whatsoever origin hypothesis therefore be based on times and spaces relate, of which we have more or less knowledge only by archeology, and more recently through genetic engineering. So far, none of these hypotheses origin could fully prevail. Therefore, they are presented individually below.

Kurgan hypothesis

The at the beginning of the 20th century expressed by many linguists suspect the original homeland of the Indo-European languages ​​located north and northeast of the Black Sea in the steppes, is even today still favored by the majority of linguists and applied since the refutation of hypotheses Renfrews ( s. below) also in anthropology increasing again as the standard. The Urindogermanen could therefore be considered on the basis of existing words as a patriarchal organized semi-nomadic society that knew the plow, the horse took advantage and was not located with any certainty the sea. Archaeologists tried to confirm this with the help of archaeological evidence. The existing during the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age in southern Russia, Ukraine and Moldova cultures north and east of the Black Sea and the Volga were of the Lithuanian- American archeologist Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s after the characteristic burial manner in grave hills ( Kurgan ) for so-called Kurgankultur summarized.

According to this Kurgan hypothesis, the Indo-Europeans lived in the 5th millennium BC as a warlike pastoral people in Southern Russia. They domesticated the horse ( Sredny Stick culture around 4000 BC ) BC invented or they took over the wagon (words for wheel, axle, drawbar, crockery, hub stand for it) against 3000, and operated cattle and grazing with sheep and cattle. According to this hypothesis, they are BC west, south and east pulled 4400-2200 in several waves. The carriers of the Corded Ware were therefore one of those waves of emigration of Kurganvolkes, for example, to spread to western Central Europe and mingled with the people living there. Long before Marija Gimbutas was considered by many archaeologists the end of the 4th millennium widespread ax the emblem of an Indo-European invasion.

With her Kurgan hypothesis explains Marija Gimbutas social upheavals that in the 3rd millennium Neolithic society in Central and Southern Europe shook her opinion: in the north gave way to collective burial in megalithic tombs of the individual burial, the grave inventory dive other offerings on (weapons, jewelry, etc. ), decorative forms and ornaments in the ceramic change. In Greece can be found at 2200 BC a vast fire horizon that is associated with the onset of the Indo-European proto- Greeks, the BC mix to about 1600 with the Mediterranean Vorbevölkerung - a process from which or the early Greeks. Achaeans and Mycenaean culture emerge, which began in 1600 BC. Even experienced Troy 2200 BC a fire disaster, a little later the Hittites be grasped in the middle of Asia Minor.

Conclusion: The Kurgan hypothesis postulates a rapid social upheaval, the elderly, elusive since the 7th millennium Neolithic cultures fall prey in much of Europe. The socially stratified and probably matrilineal peasant cultures on top of a patriarchal and feudal structured Indo-European conquerors layer, which passes through their language and social structure because of their military and technological superiority and despite considerable numerical inferiority.

From the mixing of Indo-Europeans and indigenous people nichtindogermanischer and by isolation -induced differentiation of the various Indo-European ethnic and linguistic groups, such as the Celts, Germans, Slavs, Italians, Greeks, Iranians, Indo-Aryans, Baltic, Armenian, Thracian, Hittite developed, Illyrians, Tocharians and others.

This hypothesis of Marija Gimbutas, who was at times strongly been criticized for equating the southern Russian Kurgankultur with the Indo-Europeans and the postulated from their social structure of nichtindoeuropäischen Vorbevölkerung ( Old Europe ), fits unlike Renfrews adopting best for linguistic finding that the Indo-Europeans did not come to Europe at the beginning of the Neolithic period, but were advancing in the 3rd millennium BC to the West until relatively later time. With this assumed walks to the horse spreads back out to the west. However, evidence for early riding horses in the West are still pending: The carts were long drawn by oxen.

Genetically allows immigration has not been convincingly demonstrated, and it also does not have to. Thus, the population of Hungary is mostly from a European foundation together instead of the Uralic language corresponding component; Asia Minor shows a predominantly genetically long resident population layer in which the n since the 11th Century AD Turkic flowed a maximum of 15 to 20 percent.

Europe is genetically dominated by an old European native population, which was probably to be found already in the Mesolithic. She learned since the 7th millennium BC, an increase by the early farmers who first immigrated from Asia Minor to the Balkans and from there expanded to Central Europe, which they reached around 5500 BC. What languages ​​spoke the pre-Indo- populations, we unfortunately remains hidden. Notes provide separates the Hydronomie and in Southeastern Europe place names and their extensions ( eg- assos ).

Similarly, today's speech researchers before the transition to the Indo-European languages. The weapons probably technically superior semi-nomadic Indo-Europeans spread - despite their low genetic contribution over Europe and overlaid the ancient Neolithic cultures. Thus, new cultures, approximately around 2000 mark now with the Unetice and the hills grave culture the beginning of the Bronze Age BC emerged.

Wild horses came before Indogermanisierung in Europe only regionally, while they formed large herds in steppe areas. There, the archaeologist David Anthony has discovered in horse teeth from Dereivka in Ukraine scuffs, suggesting the use of a snaffle for riding. This is a clear indication that this horse was used for riding. Ultimately, however, these horses tooth was to the years 410-200 BC dated. Anthony, however, has brought together a number of other documents, which suggest that the Indo-Europeans from ca 4700 v.u.Z. riding developed, without, however, a sure evidence was found.

In fact, the Indo-European parent language contains a rich vocabulary of the dairy and livestock (milk, butter, wool, weaving ), while designations for crops, including only an unknown type of grain, either were not available or not preserved.

Similarly, the process needs in Central Asia, to be run in Iran and northern India. This explains that the accrued through the Caucasus Hittite language of Anatolia, most deviates Renfrew area of ​​origin of the Indo-Europeans from Urindorgermanischen, however, the Finno - Ugric, probably a neighboring family of languages ​​, similar to the Primitive Indo-European has, and Baltic languages ​​such as Lithuanian particularly ancient components of the Primitive Indo-European parent language preserved. These peoples and tribes probably lived in the 5th millennium BC, yet in close proximity to the north of the presumed original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and were in the following millennia, particularly in the fourth, when the migration began, subjected to repressions; they lived as it were in a retreat area from which they much later by Slavs and Goths - the Finno - Ugric peoples of the Baltic - were pushed to the edge of the Baltic Sea and in the North.

In this way differentiated considered the hypothesis of Marija Gimbutas increased credibility receives.

The Asia Minor hypotheses

The Anatolian hypothesis

The British archaeologist Colin Renfrew is equal to the Indo-Europeans with the Neolithic ( New Stone Age ) farmers who from 7000 BC brought the agricultural sector, both through the Balkans, as well as the western Mediterranean region to Central and Northern Europe. The thesis appears first by convincing that this economy also represented an economic superiority. Renfrews theory goes from a to early occurrence of the Primitive Indo-European in Europe, since the reconstructed parent language in their linguistic deep layer contains words for things. Only from 3 -4 Century BC have been found in Europe, such as yoke, wheel and car.

Furthermore, the structure of society speaks against Renfrews hypothesis. The Indo-European vocabulary suggests a rather feudal, patriarchal, stratified society, during the Neolithic societies likely had an egalitarian social order, which presumably knew a village elder, but not warlike princes or chiefs. In addition, the Neolithic societies were in contrast to the Indo-Europeans might matrilineal structure, followed by a large number of female figures indicating which are interpreted as fertility goddesses or tribal mothers.

Renfrews hypothesis learned alleged support of New Zealanders R. Gray and Q. Atkinson. These published in the prestigious in the field of science journal Nature in 2003 (11/2003) obtained with their methods of bioinformatics glottochronologischen assumptions and faulty linguistic data pedigree for 87 Indo-European languages. The results counter criticism both in terms of subdivisions and the times: for example, should Hittite have already been spun off 9000 years ago, what (eg cycling and car terminology) can not be reconciled with reconstructions of the vocabulary.

The South Caucasus hypothesis

The former Soviet researchers Gamqrelidse and Ivanov see the area south of the Caucasus as a starting field of Indo-European language and one of here taking place in several directions Indo-European migration. The later northwestern spokesman had initially migrated eastward to the Caspian Sea around where split off the Tocharian or North Indian speaker, and then migrated westward into the North Pontic area. The authors lead only to barely recognized linguistic arguments. Older depictions of evolutionary geneticists to Cavalli - Sforza seem to support the theory of Gamqrelidse and Ivanov.

Assessment

These two hypotheses are mutually each other.

The geneticist Luigi Cavalli - Sforza Marija Gimbutas confirmed ' thesis. He sees, however, equally important to the thesis Renfrews.

Old Europe - theory

Established by Hans Krahe and The Wolfgang P. Schmid advanced " Old Europe " theory (which except the name has nothing to do with Gimbutas ' Old Europe - conception of a non-Indo- Vorbevölkerung ) based on the investigation of age and waters. It assumes that waters against renaming names have proven to be particularly resistant and thus represent a very ancient language layer. Here, researchers are a sub-discipline of linguistic research use, the so-called onomastics ( name of research). The Göttingen School of waters onomastics ( Hydronymie, currently the most prominent representative: Jürgen Udolph ) takes on a so-called " Old European " linguistic continuum. A particularly worked out by Italian and Spanish researchers theory of " Paleolithic Continuity" ( Palaeolithic Continuity Theory - PCT) could fit to these results. But would fit even Renfrews theory, if one assumes that it is precisely the waters name of the first farmers survived the Indoeuropäisierung, because the waters shall also name as a substrate older vorindogermanischer language layers, such as the hypothetical Vaskonischen.

Other theories

Balkans

In some theories the Balkans plays a key role because it at least as a " transit area " comes into question. In the final analysis, the thesis must be given to whether not also comes the Balkans, particularly the Danube Basin as a " homeland " in question.

Central European theories

Followers of this direction go in the wake of Gustaf Kossinnas assume that the Indo-Europeans go back to the Mesolithic populations of Central Europe and thus form the original population. In their view stretched for the question coming space between Weser, Baltic Sea, eastern Poland and the Carpathians. Around 4000 BC this Frühindogermanen have designed the Funnel Beaker culture and about 2500 BC started their migrations to the Balkans, to the Middle East and India. An invasion from the Asian or South Russian space would it then not given.

From the late 19th century were of many Central European scientists this view, especially those who refused as nationalists and Pan-Germans an Indo-European migration from the steppes of southern Russia for ideological reasons. In addition to some scientists who from the " Nordic master race " were close to the proto -Nazi ideology, there were Indo-European scholars and prehistorians, the Central European hypothesis favored purely scientific considerations (eg, Julius Pokorny, N. S. Troubetzkoy, Ernst Meyer and Others. ). However, their largest groups flourished the theories Central Europe in the time of National Socialism in the thirties and forties of the 20th century to support the Nazi racial doctrines.

After 1945 and any Central Europe theories on the origin of the Indo-Europeans because of their former prominent nationalist and racist exploitation or inspiration rejected by the majority, at the same time, however, got the entire Indogermanistikforschung in the German language in the sequence into disrepute, because until the end of the Second World War, the local populist public discourse had made half a century, the Indo-European studies by positioning the original home in Central Europe as the basis of a Nordic master race ideology.

The archaeologist Alexander Häusler among the Indo-European language support to the autochthonous population of Europe that were established without major invasions or migrations from outside since the Mesolithic there. The wide spread of Indo-European languages ​​is only explained by the transfer of cultural contacts.

Methodology

The historical- comparative linguistics and language typology develop so-called proto- languages ​​by comparing related languages ​​.

For archaeological cultures similar applies as for proto- languages ​​: many Indo-Europeanists try shared by analysis of all Indo-European languages ​​plant and animal names, which are therefore part of the Indo-European proto-language to determine the original home of their carrier. These approaches are due to the assumed importance of frequent changes in the criticism. However, the common plant and animal names indicate average or temperate latitudes, and because of loanwords to early contacts with speakers of Uralic and Altaic languages. However, the longitude can not be determined.

These considerations and linguistic analyzes have in today by the majority represented Kurgan theory as the spreading center to a region in southern Russia, on pastoralists, who were no longer hunters and gatherers - analogous to the corresponding terms in the Indo-European parent language - probably operated a rudimentary agriculture. According to these studies, the propagation time is with an uncertainty of nearly a thousand years in 3100 BC

Joint Indo-European names of farming, such as plowing, as well as the transport wheel, carts and yoke suggest that the Indo-European tribes (initially pulled by oxen ) spread only after the acquisition of the car transport. After that, they can not have been the carrier of the first farming cultures that migrated in the old Neolithic from Asia Minor to Europe, but until relatively late (about 3600-2600 BC) migrants. These early Metal Age period brought, as previously agriculture, a greater circulation with it. Archaeologists place the findings to fund horizons. Horizons with sufficiently rich data layer are called cultures. A so-called "culture" is typical finds, mostly ceramics, defined ( Leitfunde ). However, equating archaeological cultures with ethnic units, clans or nations is usually impossible, even if it was in the 19th and early 20th century, in Germany especially by Gustaf Kossinna tries.

Linguists describe a proto-language, often try to find archaeological evidence for this proto-language, and sometimes (but rarely) try archaeologists who describe a culture that can be found in the absence of historical data linguistic evidence. This does not change the fact that a relationship between proto languages ​​and cultures is basically hypothetical, so that whilst it can refer generally to companies and the community of speakers of linguistically reconstructed proto-language may have been wholly or partially support the relevant archaeological culture, but whereas not claim with certainty may be, these companies were a people or their language would have been limited to the cultural level.

The hypotheses described above are based - each for itself - on completely different assumptions. Some hypotheses close, although they seem to contradict each other, not necessarily mutually exclusive.

Timeframe

The various theories differ already in an attempt to summarize the Proto - Indo-Europeans in time. In the Upper Paleolithic ( Otte ) started the subject origins in North Africa. Latest assumptions predate the spread of the Indo-Europeans to Europe in the Neolithic or the locally different beginning Bronze Age ( in Central Europe about 2500 BC).