Jet fuel

Jet fuel, jet fuel, light oil, middle distillate turbine kerosene, light petroleum, kerosene, kerosene

Jet A-1, TS -1

Fossil

8008-20-6

8.0-8.8 mm ² / s ( -20 ° C) ( depending on variety )

0.750 to 0.845 kg / l ( depending on variety )

• 34.1 to 34.8 MJ / L ( at the reference density of 0.800 kg / l)
• 42.6 to 43.5 MJ / kg (depending on variety)

Highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide

~ 150 to 300 ° C.

28 to 60 ° C (depending on variety)

2.760 kg / l

Risk

Kerosine ( a light petroleum, Greek Keros: wax, in Switzerland called kerosene ) are aviation fuels of different specifications, mainly as fuel for the gas turbine engines of jet and turboprop aircraft and helicopters ( jet fuel ) are used. With the development of specific, appropriate aviation diesel engines, such as the Thielert Centurion 1.7, also equipped in such a small aircraft can be operated with kerosene since the beginning of the 21st century.

Kerosine are each a close Fraktionierschnitt from the light middle distillate petroleum refining, provided with additive packages to meet any specifications. The boiling curve of kerosene runs in comparison to other fuels rather flat. The designation referred to ADR is KEROSENE, it falls under the packing group III.

• 4.1 Civil Aviation 4.1.1 Jet A
• 4.1.2 Jet A -1 (NATO Code F -35)
• 4.1.3 Jet B
• 4.1.4 of TS-1

• 4.2.1 JP -1
• 4.2.2 JP -2, JP -3
• 4.2.3 JP -4 (NATO Code F -40)
• 4.2.4 JP -5 (NATO Code F -44)
• 4.2.5 JP -6
• 4.2.6 JPTS
• 4.2.7 JP -7
• 4.2.8 JP -8, JP -8 100 (NATO Code F -34)

• 5.1 Factors influencing the consumption of kerosene
• 5.2 ways to fuel savings

• 6.1 Price history
• 6.2 Taxes

History

The name of kerosene goes back to the doctor and geologist Abraham Gesner (1797-1864), in 1846 in Nova Scotia (Canada) from coal, a highly flammable liquid, won the equivalent to the German Petroleum. A case arising waxy intermediate, which played an important role in the process, is the reason that it the liquid Kerosene (pronounced Kerrosin or Kerosien ) called. The intermediate product was similar to the paraffin, which is why the liquid derived product is still called paraffin ( Oil) in British English. Having discovered their distillation of crude oil in the early 1850s improved methods for the production of Kerosene from coal and Ignacy Łukasiewicz and Jan Zeh was (Polish patent of December 2, 1853), and in 1858 the first North American oil was discovered in Ohio, was Gesner method is no longer viable, his company with their rights and licenses was acquired by Standard Oil. However, the brand or the name of Kerosene sat down by almost worldwide.

Linguistic differentiation

Gesner reported to both the invention of the product to the U.S. patent and the word Kerosene as trademarks. To circumvent the protected trademark rights were introduced by other manufacturers with other methods other names, often based on the concepts wax ( Kerosene ), alluding rock ( coal ) and oil: mineral oil ( German ) or Petroleum ( Greek- Latin), cherosene ( Italian) or Queroseno ( spanish). These names and in addition diversity on Gasolene (referring to the distillation of a petroleum ) based terms lead to the same sounding names in different languages ​​describe very different refined petroleum and can lead to dangerous misunderstandings.

In the German language kerosene always denotes the aviation turbine fuel described in this article, except in the jargon of German oil industry, where it is used as Eindeutschung to Kerosene. This leads to confusion with the wrong friends in other languages ​​, which is almost always the thing, and that is the German Petroleum: Kerosene in American English, Spanish Queroseno, Dutch kerosene or cherosene in Italian. Exceptions are, for example Kerozin ( Croatian) or occasionally Kerosene (French), where it can also refer to the aviation turbine fuel. In British English, and hence in many Commonwealth countries, the term Kerosene is known but fairly uncommon, but then usually means also Petroleum.

The aviation turbine fuel described here is referred to in most (European) languages ​​with a word containing the element ' Jet ' like Jet Fuel, Jet -Un or Jet-A (see also in the category: Languages ​​).

Production

Today's turbine kerosene does not have much to do with the historical coal product of Abraham Gesner. It is now taken from the top trays of the middle distillate of Erdölrektifikation. The main components of kerosene are predominantly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons having about 8 to 13 carbon atoms per molecule. The narrow Fraktionierschnitt causes little light and bit heavy hydrocarbon compounds present in the fuel, and therefore it does not ignite early and almost residue-free burn. Most molecules ignite at the same temperature. Gives an indication of a Siedeanalyse, which in the case of kerosene in the middle boiling range results in a widely held, shallow boiling. This is between heavy gasoline and diesel fuel.

In Germany 2007, approximately 4.6 million tons of aviation turbine fuel ( heavy ) were prepared.

Additives

Kerosene differs from petroleum beside the narrower Fraktionierschnitt substantially by the addition of functional additives ( see also, Appendix D, or) that are necessary or useful for use as a jet fuel. These include:

• Prevent anti -static agents or reduce the tendency of the fuel to charge static in fueling ( STADIS 450, active substance: Dinonylnaphthylsulfonsäure, dosage: 1-5 mg / l)
• Anti -oxidants to avoid the formation of gummy deposits can form in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. In " hydrogenated " kerosene shares the dosage requirement is ( substances: polysubstituted phenols, a maximum of 24 mg / L).
• Metal deactivators prevent by metals (especially copper) catalysed oxidation of kerosene ( substance: N, N'- 1 ,2- diaminopropane - disalicylidene, max 5.7 mg / L. ).
• Corrosion inhibitors to prevent corrosion in the tank. Some of these substances have also lubricity-improving properties ( substances: long-chain fatty acids or poly-substituted phenols, Dosage: unknown).
• Anti-icing agents prevent the formation of water ice when the kerosene when flying at high altitudes is strongly cooled. It does not affect the freezing point, i.e., the formation of wax crystals at low temperatures. These substances also have biocidal effect ( substances: and others, diethylene glycol monomethyl ether / DEGME, 0.10-0.15 %).
• Biocides be applied to the initial filling after revisions. Permanent use leads to resistance ( substances: and others Kathon: chloromethylisothiazolinone, Methylisothiazolinone or octylisothiazolinone, Dosage: 1 ppm).
• Heat stabilizers (Thermal Stability Improver ) come at the JP -8 100 to use and prevent / reduce the decomposition ( cracking) of the kerosene at high temperatures ( substances: unknown, dosage: unknown).

Varieties ( Specification and Usage )

Civil Aviation

Jet A

The only currently still in the United States in the application of fuel type Jet A corresponds to the military specification JP- 1 with a freezing point or freezing point of -40 ° C.

• Density: 0.775 to 0.825 kg / dm ³
• Flash point: 38 ° C
• Freezing point: -40 ° C

Jet A -1 (NATO Code F -35)

Today, almost exclusively the specification Jet A -1 (equivalent to the military designation JP -1A ) with a slightly lower freezing point (-47 ° C), but identical flash point and boiling range as Jet A in the international civil aviation except the U.S. is used as jet fuel. The NATO code is F- 35th

The military aviation NATO uses the same basic fuel under the name Jet Propellant -8 ( JP -8, NATO Code F- 34), this still special for military use additives (additives), such as antifreeze ( Fuel System Icing Inhibitor, FSII ), corrosion inhibitors, lubricants and antistatic agents such as Dinonylnaphthylsulfonsäure be added.

• Density: 0.775 to 0.825 kg / dm ³
• Flash point: 38 ° C
• Freezing point: -47 ° C

Jet B

For flights in regions with extremely low temperatures, such as Alaska, Canada and Siberia, still exist varieties Jet B for civil and JP -4 with the appropriate additives for military use (Wide Cut Fuels ) consisting of 65 % gasoline - and 35 % kerosene fractions exist and have a freezing point of -60 ° C. However, the engines must be suitable for the use of this fuel.

• Density: 0.750 to 0.800 kg / dm ³
• Energy density: 11.11 kWh / kg and 0.796 kg for conventional / dm ³ = 8.84 kWh / l
• Flash point 20 ° C
• Freezing point -60 ° C

TS-1

Another species with a flash point of 28 ° C and also a freezing point of -60 ° C is occasionally still used in Eastern Europe after the Russian GOST 10227-62 specification TS -1.

Military Aviation

JP -1

The specification AN- F- 32, the jet fuel for the first time in the United States under the name of JP- 1 (Eng.: Jet Propellant -1, as much as jet fuel 1) describes, goes back to the year 1944. Main disadvantage of the fuel introduced in 1944 is that it can only be used up to temperatures of -40 ° C. The now obsolete JP- 1 had a freezing point of maximum -60 ° C and a flash point of at least 43 ° C, had a boiling range from about 180 to 230 ° C and was classified in the hazard class A II.

JP -2, JP -3

The 1945 introduced JP -2 and JP -3, introduced in 1947 are obsolete today. They were called Wide Cut Fuels with a freezing point of -60 ° C. maximum

JP -4 (NATO Code F -40)

For flights in regions with extremely low temperatures, such as Alaska, Canada and Siberia, still exist varieties Jet B for civil and JP -4 with the appropriate additives for military use (Wide Cut Fuels ) consisting of 65 % gasoline - and 35 % kerosene fractions exist and have a freezing point of -72 ° C maximum. The NATO code for JP -4, F -40 (U.S. Military Specification MIL -DTL- 5624U ). For single beam jets of the Luftwaffe was for security F -40 is the first choice. However, the engines must be suitable for the use of this fuel. Many military engines (such as the GE - J79 ) can on (occasionally) F- 34 are relatively easy changed by a setting on the controller of ( normal) F -40. As 1951 introduced fuel the U.S. Air Force was replaced from about the fall of 1996 by JP -8, JP -4 ( F -40).

JP -5 (NATO Code F -44)

The 1952 introduced special grade JP -5 with a particularly high flash point (safety fuel, high Flashpoint Kerosene ) is used for reasons of cost, only for on-board aircraft and on-board helicopter. She has a freezing point of -46 ° C. maximum Will use the fuel in particular aircraft carriers. The NATO symbol F- 44th The flash point is 65 ° C, making it almost 30 ° C higher than the standard Jet A1 fuel. According to security experts, could be severely restricted with the civilian use of JP- 5, the explosion and fire hazard in aviation.

JP -6

The now obsolete JP -6 was introduced in 1956 for the XB -70 program. JP- 6 had a higher energy density as a JP -4 and higher temperatures than that of holding. It is similar to JP- 5, but has a lower freezing point of -54 ° C. maximum

JPTS

The 1956 also introduced JPTS (Jet Propellant Thermally Stable ) was designed with a freezing point of -53 ° C maximum and a minimum flash point of 43 ° C for higher thermal stability as well as the amount of fuel. It is only used for the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and still made in two refineries in the United States. Fuel cost about three times of JP -8.

JP -7

Another special type is introduced in 1960, hardly inflammable JP -7 aircraft flying high supersonic speeds and become hot through the air friction. The only aircraft that used the fuel, was the Lockheed SR- 71st The fuel has a maximum freezing point of -43 ° C and a flash point of at least 60 ° C. The global deployment of special fuel, JP -7 for the worldwide use of SR- 71 and thereby in particular the elaborate air refueling logistics was a very high operating cost for a single type of aircraft and contributed to the fact that the SR -71 was retired for reasons of cost.

JP -8, JP -8 100 (NATO Code F -34)

The introduced in 1979 on some NATO bases JP -8 has replaced from 1996, the JP -4. For the U.S. Air Force in 1990, the specification was set. It was designed as a heavy flammable fuel that is to be used until about 2025. The fuel has a maximum freezing point of -47 ° C and a flash point of at least 38 ° C. Its NATO code is F -34.

JP-8 100 is further introduced in 1998, JP -8, which is to increase its thermal stability at 100 ° F ( 55.6 ° C).

Consumption

In Germany 2007, approximately 8.8 million tons of aviation turbine fuel ( heavy) were consumed. Because production was significantly less jet in Germany ( 4.6 million tons, supra ), the deficit had to go through imports - are covered - mainly from Rotterdam. As a comparison, the sales of petroleum amounted to a vanishingly small amount of 14,000 tons.

Factors influencing the consumption of kerosene

Type of aircraft and engines affect the consumption of each aircraft. Over the past decades, it is observed that the consumption of modern passenger aircraft is steadily decreasing. The individual aircraft types each with different engines, especially of the three major manufacturers General Electric Aircraft Engines, Pratt & Whitney and Rolls- Royce available. Depending on the combination of type of aircraft and engine, there are differences in the fuel consumption of a machine. The weight of an aircraft is the second major factor in fuel consumption. In addition to the weight of the aircraft itself, this depends on the style, the utilization of the carried amount of kerosene and the Frachtzuladung a machine. In addition to the aircraft and also the weight of the flight path has an impact on fuel consumption. These efforts primarily plays the distance traveled by an aircraft on its flight from departure to destination, a major role. Due to the airway system of beacons along detours arise that extend the distance to be an airplane unnecessary. At many airports with congested slots aircraft have to fly holding patterns before landing. The distance to be flown is extended by detours and holding patterns and thus causes increased fuel consumption.

Opportunities for fuel savings

Because of reduced consumption of new aircraft types airlines try to replace their old aircraft with new, more fuel-efficient models. This fleet rejuvenation holds much potential for reducing fuel consumption and thus saves money in the long term. The improvement of the infrastructure by the "Single European Sky" (SES ) to increase the efficiency of the air traffic in Europe, significantly. The weight of the aircraft is one of the crucial factors influencing the fuel consumption. This leads to constant efforts of the aircraft manufacturers to reduce the weight of the aircraft by newly developed materials. So-called fiber composites, especially carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP ) are used in the first place. This allows the weight of modern aircraft can be reduced by up to 40 %. While in the past dared only to the use of composites in tail, wings and other parts of the aircraft, with the new generation of aircraft is also a part of the hull of the modern materials. Winglets are a kerosene -saving measure that has been found in recent years widespread use in aviation. As winglets is defined as the vertical extension at the end of the aircraft wing. This serves to reduce air turbulence which occur at the tips of the blades by different pressure on the top and underside of the wing. The turbulence reduce lift and induce resistance, both of which increase the fuel consumption. Another way to optimize the fuel consumption is the continuous Landesinkflug (CDA). In this case, the aircraft remains longer than the conventional landing at altitude and then decreases at a steady Landesinkflug landing.

Prices

Prices for Jet A -1 ( trade name: Jet) are based on the Rotterdam market. Jet is ( U.S. $ / t) traded in U.S. dollars per 1000 kg. Various official publications report on current trading prices and volumes. The reference density used in trade ( at the cost of the current batch with a given density in relation to put the quotation ) is 0.800 kg / l Here in particular transport costs must be taken into account ( see also :).

Price history

From the year 1986 to 1999, the fuel price has risen a total of $ 17 to $ 22 per barrel. Since 2000, the fuel price increases since 2004, he rises very sharply. The special problem of the fuel price development in 2008 is that within a short time, both a record price and the lowest level since July 2004. The record price of $ 169.57 per barrel was recorded in July 2008. In just seven months, the price dropped to $ 53.52 per barrel in February 2009. Since the summer of 2008, both the crude oil and the price of kerosene in the downward trend. In March 2009, the price of jet fuel averaged $ 55.03 per barrel.

Taxation

Jet A -1, as well AvGas, for commercially operating air carrier is not the ( German ) Energy Tax Act and therefore not the ( German ) Environmental tax is subject. Only in the private flying and used for transport of commercial aircraft is any sort of aircraft fuel energy tax ( € 654 per 1000 liters of kerosene).