Problem solving

In problem solving refers to the transfer of a current state to a desired state by resistors in intelligent action, usually by conscious thought processes. G. H. Wheatley was the witty definition " problem solving is what you do when you do not know what to do ." Dissatisfaction is considered to be a condition that can cause someone to conceive a status quo as a problem. The sequence of different sub - activities within the framework of such a process is also referred to as a problem -solving process. Will explore the basics of problem solving from the psychology of thought, cognitive science and decision theory.

Basics

Problem solving consists of three steps:

Herbert Simon and Allen Newell consider man as an information processing system with limited capabilities that interacts with its environment ( " information processing approach", 1972). For them there is problem solving from steps comprehension ( understanding ) and Search (search ). First of all be gathered consider relevant information from the environment and the memory and the problem space constructed ( understanding ), then this problem space is searched for solutions (search ). If necessary, missing information can be searched or produced by inference, analogy, etc., adapted to the problem space accordingly and the search continues in this.

Concrete strategies for problem solving are the many creative techniques and special, designed for group problem-solving techniques. The two are not strictly separate, as different techniques work on both internal and external dialogue.

Problem solving happens between two possible extremes

The method " trial and error " was investigated by Edward Lee Thorndike in rats. It does not require any intelligence. To illustrate: A caged dog will be felt only by stridulating. Probably barking follows door scratching. If that does not help, he will probably jump at the door and make it ultimately by chance, push down on the door handle. If successful, it is this " Experienced " use of trial and error out again and again. In children, one can observe similar. Have they learned that they could handle a situation with a certain behavior, they repeat this in the future.

Applying different solution strategies based on the fact that a person may have saved several solution options in the memory for a problem situation. They observed the situation, assessed according to their experiential or otherwise learned strategies and looking for a way to adequately resolve the situation.

But also for the trial- and-error strategy is a memory that excludes, durchzuexerzieren unsuccessful approaches over and over again by chance essential. The creative modification of already successfully applied problem solving strategies for the masters of similar problems, the so-called " restructuring " of things we have learned, is an important step away from coincidence actions and towards einsichtigem problem solving. In the brain, existing schemes are adapted to the circumstances of the situation by generalization performance. Restructuring of what has been learned thus presupposes abstraction ability. With creativity, however, is referred to the possibilities of an intelligent being, new and as yet unseen behaviors or ideas involve them in the problem solving process.

When thinking in terms of systems, the problem is classified in a very specific paradigmatic system and selected the solution strategy from known, adapted to this paradigm strategies.

• Reported about a man on his detriment fears and dreams, so an appropriately trained psychologist is most likely to approach from the psychological point of view on this phenomenon. Chronicles this man from his environment, however, that it in various situations is no apparent reason aggressively, for example, the psychologists would argue rather from the behaviorist view that this behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Gestalt psychology considers the human being in himself and his environment, trying in this way to apply problem-solving techniques.
• When a team of structural engineers with a focus on bridge gets a contract to perform a new railway line through a hilly terrain, it is looking for a high-altitude route, spanning valleys with bridges. Civil engineers with a focus on tunneling are looking for a deeper route and find the drives through the valleys and passes through mountains with tunnels.

After Thomas Samuel Kuhn is the normal science of problem solving.

Lenses SYMPTOMS

Since cognitive problem-solving processes are always based on a subjective problem representation, it is necessary to define for the systematic study of problem solving, which is a problem at all marked. In a complex space which can take infinitely many different states, a problem can be seen as a difference between a present output state and a target state. The target of a problem-solving process is to minimize this difference gradually through intermediate states that are generated by the specific application of the operators. An operator is defined in this sense as an action that transforms a problem state to another. Thus it can be described by its target state and the operator inventory with which this is to be achieved, exhaustive a problem. After Dietrich Dörner (1981 ) can about these two components of each problem are classified:

• A problem with closed, that is exactly eingegrenztem, target state and operator inventory is characterized by a Interpolationsbarriere (eg chess)
• A problem with a closed target state and open operator inventory is characterized by a synthesis barrier ( for example, in Medicine )
• A problem with an open goal state and a closed operator inventory is characterized by a dialectical barrier (eg holiday planning )
• A problem with an open goal state and operator inventory is characterized by both a synthesis and a dialectical barrier

The formalized forms of operators are called productions, which are characterized by contingency, modularity, goal decomposition and abstraction. They are composed of two components:

Problem solving - heuristics and algorithms

Problem solving generally proceeds according to the following scheme:

The fact that the process of problem solving is anything but trivial, shows a variety of heuristics that there individuals or groups ( see also problem solving technique ( group) ) allow, despite limited resources (time, etc. Energy ) problems to work so that they in the most cases find an adequate solution.

Central mechanisms that have proven this in the course of evolution as meaningful, are called heuristics. However, they bring in some situations that systematic errors are committed in solving complex problems.

' Algorithm ' called strategies that are suitable only for certain types of tasks.

When a chicken can be observed, for example, such fundamental heuristics, which are also the people to self: If a chicken spied feed which is on the other side of a fence, so it moves towards this. The heuristic used here is the difference reduction. It ensures that the target state, food intake, step by step approaching. Once the chicken is standing in front of the fence, it does not come on, but is not willing to go back a few steps to find another way to feed. The now interfering with the achievement of the target state heuristic is the backup avoidance, which the chicken obviously can not overcome aware.

Problem -solving strategies

• Means-end analysis: Is my approach the right ( means ) to achieve the desired state (purpose )? If the expected new state closer to the target ( target state )?
• Thinking from the goal of
• Overcoming barriers: restructure a deadlock resolution strategy
• Search for parallels similar issues: Working with Analogies

Difference reduction

As mentioned above, stating the difference reduction that effective problem solving is usually possible by successively approximating to the target state. This principle is also called mountain climbers and method has the disadvantage that any complex problem solving processes between states are reached, from where it can go no further and thus one has to resort to earlier intermediate steps.

A problem to which the method of difference reduction can be shown, the so-called missionaries and cannibals task. Three missionaries and three cannibals ( other versions hobbits and orcs or the like) will translate into a maximum of two persons which boat to the other side of a river. However, the number of cannibals must never exceed the number of missionaries. When you attempt to solve it are always two possible moves, the one leading back to a previous state.

For more complex problems, however, the climbers method can result in dead ends or endless loops. An effective problem-solving strategy that avoids such difficulties, provides the means-ends analysis, formulated Simon & Newell (1972). It is based on that of solving relevant, but not available operators be made available. This is done using recursion in which the target state is decomposed into sub-goals, which are achieved by means of other available operators. This was modeled as an information processing process using a computer: the General Problem Solver.

Problem solving with artificial intelligence

In this article it comes to problem-solving strategies of supernatural beings. For the derived range of applications in artificial intelligence, in which it is attempted to use formal inferential problem-solving, see Automatic problem-solving.

Analogy

Another relevant heuristic is the analogy, in which the elements of a basic domain, a problem whose solution was known previously, is transferred to a target domain. An example of this is the transfer of the elements of the heliocentric model to a model of the atom by Rutherford. In order for the items can be transferred, knowledge is needed to be the presence of relevant domains from which operators can be derived. After Doerner (1981), however, this is an abstraction necessary, which must not be obvious in many cases, since the base domains are differently represented as the Zieldömäne. Potential difficulties arise here, for example, by the functional fixation (you can a rabbit fur absolutely use as tinder, even if it is not close ) or by setting effects.

Methodical problem solving

One of the Institute of Product Development ( IPEK ) developed at the University of Karlsruhe methodical approach to problem solving is the acronym COLUMNS circumscribed. His steps are:

• Situation Analysis
• Problem isolation
• To present alternatives
• Choose a Solution
• Scope analyze - assess opportunities and risks
• Introduction and implementation - measures and processes
• Post-processing and learning

This sequence can be understood as a guide to methodological solution of any problems.

The British Open University organization in 1999, in the course Creativity, Innovation and Change a structured problem-solving process as follows:

• Exploration ( mapping / Enrich the understanding of the problem)
• Definition ( sharpen / adjust the focus on the problem)
• Collecting ( ... of information about the current state )
• Production ( producing / collecting ideas / views / opinions, etc.)
• Grouping ( categorizing / coarse mapping of related ideas / views / opinions, etc.)
• Preselecting ( Large amount of material in a short list compress)
• Prioritize ( assessment / selection / development within the short list)
• Plan ( the concept into a workable, acceptable schedule change )

If the problem environment as a system, so his solution, various problem-solving process from the concept of system engineering can be applied. This approach is particularly suitable for problem solving in complex socio-technical systems, such as companies.

These models have as well as others (eg, design thinking or the six -stage model of REFA Association ) fundamental similarities. Common to all models is a three-tier structure:

• Exploration of the problem formulation, followed by work
• Exploration of possible solutions with subsequent limitation on promising strategies
• Introduction of a few solutions with subsequent re- inspection.

Even highly structured special strategies such as TRIZ and ARIZ (both are primarily technical solutions ) largely follow this structured plan.

To appear reasonable, these strategies also structured so unfit they are in different situations. Simple problems (eg, finding the nearest parking lot ) usually require no complex structures. Highly complex problems (eg negotiating peace after a civil war ) are not to be identified and described in its entirety. In such cases, the problem-solving process itself is part of the solution; eg Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland or the peace process in the Middle East. Structured processes are accordingly to the problems of the middle class.

Internal and External Representation

In case of problems, a distinction between simple and complex problems. In order to solve problems of any kind better or faster, it is important to select the most appropriate form of representation.

By internal representation means all internal representations (eg, one imagines, which handles one has run just before you moved the key ). It is to the target ( = final state ) will present exactly the most important and to know exactly WHAT is the goal. Furthermore, it must also be the initial situation be known, as well as applicable operators and their limitations. Such internal representations are constructed by adding information about the problem or omits or interprets the information. The internal representation is sufficient for simple problems.

For more complex problems in addition, an external representation must take place. External representations are all forms of representation, which take place outside the intellectual idea to count on the fingers, for example, read aloud, record etc. External representation can only take place when an internal representation already exists and helps to identify relationships between problem aspects.

Development and change of representation

Forms of representation can evolve during the problem solving process. These developments are considered improvements. The changes take place, because you have left at the beginning of the problem solving process possibly important aspects outside before and this did not recognize or did not understand, for example, restrictions. From this it is clear once again how important it is to select a convenient form of representation as a solution strategy. This facilitates problem solving.

Schema induction

One learns from experience in dealing with problems, so can the induced knowledge are divided into four areas:

The first three types of knowledge are declarative, the fourth is procedural.