Volunteered geographic information
Volunteered Geographic Information ( VGI abbreviated, German "voluntarily collected geographic information " ) is the body of spatial information, which is voluntarily collected by laymen, organized and subsequently placed ready for the public, so others can use this data and process it. Behind VGI always puts it targeted the recording and sharing of data, such as during a bird count or when entering a cycle path on OpenStreetMap. Be distinguished from the so-called Non- Volunteered Geographic Information, which provide Nutzer_innen without their knowledge or as passive actors data are available, as is the case with the tracking of smartphones. VGI applications are largely held in the interactive Web 2.0 and recorded since the mid- 2000s, a sharp increase.
- 5.1 Non - commercial and open source projects
- 5.2 Commercial providers
- 5.3 State Projects
- 7.1 Quality and Quality Control
- 7.2 VGI as a " democratization" of cartography?
Genesis
The term Volunteered Geographic Information goes back to the American geographer Michael Goodchild, who used it in an article for the first time in 2007. Meanwhile, the term has gained acceptance for the description of the phenomenon. VGI also able to establish itself as an interdisciplinary field of research that, among other things includes the geography and other social sciences.
VGI apply primarily as a phenomenon of the 21st century, yet for several decades, there are already projects with VGI character. The Christmas Bird Count of the American Audubon Society goes back to the year 1900. These volunteers to create a specified time and in a certain area a list of birds observed. In Britain fell back in the 1930/40er years also on the help of school classes during the recording of land use, the surveys conducted.
For the most part the inclusion of spatial data and cartographic work itself in modern times were the State or surveying agencies reserved. This is in particular the fact that the creation of maps is a complex process and requires a variety of resources: First, the expertise of a suitably trained cartographers, this consumes. Secondly, the information retrieval by remote sensing as well as the subsequent treatment very costly. Therefore, it was V.A. the mapped what remained valid long and as many fans found. Geographical information and maps were therefore often kept as general as possible in order to be versatile. This resource-intensive process causes more and more government agencies to limit their cartographic activities. This contrasts with the ever-growing needs for spatial data of all kinds, whether in the form of a road map or information on attractions in the area. Against this background and in combination with the improved technical possibilities, the VGI movement developed.
At the state level can be since the mid- 1990s, a greater involvement of Bürger_innen when recording geographical data observed. Example of this is introduced in the U.S. in 1994 " National Spatial Data Infrastructure ". Here Kartierarbeiten of state survey offices are transferred to volunteers who record data based on accurate guidelines. This project is considered the forerunner of today's VGI projects. Nevertheless, it should still take about a decade, until the movement became a mass phenomenon. The decisive factor was V.A. the user-friendly technologies that are available for many people nowadays.
Technical Requirements
As a basis for VGI apply the Web 2.0. The internet user is no longer a passive recipient of information, but can itself create and distribute content. The applications are often simple to use and are used by a wide audience. The uploaded data will be referred to as User - Generated Content ( UGC). VGI make it a subcategory specializing in the information that deal with geographic issues of all kinds. Michael Goodchild designated VGI as a product of Web 2.0 and the various possibilities of interaction that it offers.
Furthermore, also the process of georeferencing steadily simplified because GPS is now available not only as a standalone receiver, but also in many smartphones and cameras. Where previously expensive apparatuses were still needed, you can capture coordinates using this technique easily, fast and with good accuracy today. Alternatively, they can be retrieved from maps and from network applications such as. Similarly, the increasing availability of broadband Internet has contributed to the spread of VGI.
Potentials
Volunteers are experts in local issues. They have a deeper knowledge of their environment and are well informed on what is happening locally. In a figurative sense, human beings function as a sensor that detects its environment with his senses, interprets and reproduces. Volunteers can thus particularly well contribute "invisible" information such as informal location names as VGI. However, weather data, information about crime, leisure activities or traffic data are suitable for ingestion by volunteers.
VGI are also suitable for all those circumstances which appear at very short notice or for a short period of time. A network of volunteers provides the ability to flexibly react to particular events and perform a fast data acquisition. In New Jersey, for example, to map Teilnehmer_innen a VGI project pools that occur only a few weeks a year. On the basis of the resulting database environment agency can decide whether the relevant areas to be placed under special protection. A rapid uptake and dissemination of information is particularly relevant in disaster situations or creating crisis maps further.
Depending on the expertise and experience of volunteers can also collect specific data. So, for example, farmers had to leave for a long time on the soil maps of the state, which were only very general and did not contain detailed information on the growing areas. Using new measurement techniques, it is the farmers nowadays possible to determine parameters such as the pH or the soil moisture that are relevant for crop cultivation. With this data, they can thus create a more accurate soil map, which is tailored to their needs.
To what extent VGI can be used at the state level, remains to be seen. In some areas, the use of volunteers provides quite at, for example, if traffic routes mapped or special topographic situations covered. It is also conceivable that volunteers in the future due to improved technology can contribute reliable data even in the height measurement. You can also be there to help to retain existing data up to date. Other topics such as geodesy or orthophotos, however, but still require training and / or special equipment and should therefore remain the task of the state. The same applies to cadastral maps.
Differentiation
In the research literature now the consensus has formed that VGI only describe the data that were collected by volunteers specifically with the intention of they share. The collection of data is participatory. Thus, a distinction to those data is needed, which are passively collected by Nutzer_innen and provided without them this is necessarily aware of. Next non- Volunteered Geographic Information this type of data recording is referred to as " opportunistic ". A more advanced category of VGI, the data from social media, for which the term Ambient Geospatial information is.
Non- Volunteered Geographic Information
The term Non- Volunteered Geographic Information is used for the information that will be involuntarily or unconsciously recorded and collected. This can be done by devices that actively exploit the stakeholders themselves, but also by location-based sensors such as security cameras. Thus, it was 2010 that the iPhone data Besitzers_in collects and stores unencrypted. Are stored location data, as well as the corresponding times. Similar to other operating systems such as Android or Windows to proceed.
In a similar vein, the term Contributed Geographic 's Information ( CGI). He also emphasizes that data are only passively contributed, control options or access to it is not in most cases. Frequently CGI work on so-called " opt -out" provisions, ie Nutzer_innen must accept fully the Terms of Use of a service in order to apply it to. The Google Map Maker is thus only enabled if one agrees that Google has obtained rights to the listed cards and they can continue to spread, for example. In the collection of traffic data for his service Google Maps, Google uses an " opt -in" - model: Here the user of the Android operating system itself must activate both the GPS function and the location of access under the Google Maps app. Only then its data is automatically used for the detection of traffic. A jam message, therefore, means that Android phones do not continue to move at the moment on the highway.
Data from social media
Also in social media posts often include a geographical reference. The difference to VGI is that here no specific intention behind the parts is spatial data, such as the entry into a database and the subsequent processing. The included " geographic footprint" is a side effect. Since it communicates information about your environment in this way, they are referred to as Ambient Geospatial Information (AGI ). This type of information may serve to special social events and developments at an early stage to discover, locate and accompany. In addition tweets include videos on YouTube and photos on Flickr AGI if they are provided with a geographic location. Also from apps like Foursquare can be geographic information read out. The Wall Street Journal evaluated Foursquare data from New York and San Francisco, which were collected in the period of one week. In doing so places were associated with increased activity out there where a particularly large number Nutzer_innen einloggten in the app, such as in restaurants or train stations.
Contributions from social media but do not automatically fall under the category AGI. Once someone aware geospatial data shares with the intention that they can be used later by others, is spoken by VGI. This is the case for example with a snow map of the United Kingdom. She works with tweets to be included in addition to a hashtag and accurate information on the situation in the form of the postal code. For this information, the term VGI is more appropriate. In connection with AGI should also be noted that the shared information about their own whereabouts can be misused easily. The application Please Rob Me draws attention to how easy it is to find out if someone is not home, and hence a potential burglary victims. These combined freely available AGI from Twitter and Foursquare.
Application Examples
Non - commercial and open source projects
Commercial providers
On the commercial side of Google's applications include the most prominent examples that support the processing of VGI. The Map Maker allows himself to edit maps and label places. Google also provides an application is available, using which one can combine Google maps with other data to create a new thematic map of it. This can also serve as VGI data base. The resulting maps are called mashup.
Also navigation systems such as TomTom collect anonymous data on their geographical Nutzer_innen if they have given their consent. These are for one to update their maps and create traffic forecasts. In addition, the data will be passed on to road authorities, where they act as a basis for decision.
State projects
The U.S. Department of the Interior runs the site Did you feel it? . Bürger_innen are encouraged to contribute information about earthquakes in their region. Through the involvement of those directly affected is to be achieved, that accurate information about the extent of an earthquake ready quickly. The data is prepared both academically and also serve quickly and efficiently organize help. Originally for use only in the U.S., events from around the world can be submitted today.
The project Geograph British Ordnance Survey has set itself the objective is to collect representative photographs and information for every square kilometer of Great Britain and Ireland. In February 2014, the database included nearly 4 million images that were provided and uploaded by volunteers with a description.
The user - from consumer to producer
The role of the user, has undergone a fundamental transformation in the context of VGI. In times of traditional cartography he was a passive consumer of data and maps, most of which were published by a government body. He was regarded mainly as a customer and source of income. By described technological developments, new possibilities opened for the user. Now he can himself create maps and share information. This new mix of consumer and producer is summarized under the term " prosumer".
The volunteers are often by laymen who have not undergone technical geographical education. This lack of knowledge is compensated by technical innovations easily handled. Even without deeper knowledge of cartographic processes can be created with appropriate software quickly and easily maps.
The motivations of volunteers to participate in a project, there are very diverse. They include altruism as well as professional interest or the need to belong to a community ( in this case for example the OpenStreetMap community ). Particularly relevant for collectors of VGI overcome so-called "Pride of place" to be, that is the pride of a specific site. The shared information about a place, for example, tourism or economic development can serve, or it is primarily a matter that one's place is just a presence on a map.
Critical discussion
Quality and quality control
A central question that arises in connection with VGI, that is according to the quality and quality control of VGI. The volunteers collect and share the VGI can be considered as reliable sources of local information, but they take data usually do not according to scientific standards. The quality of the information thus depends largely on how conscientiously and accurately the individual volunteers they captured.
A key feature of the data quality is the source: Full references are usually wear to the credibility of information on. In this information network, however, are sometimes not visible, do not exist or are involved so many users on a project that a review of the individual sources is not possible. In addition, often a variety of sources for a project to be used, without these being identified. Similarly, with metadata that is not enabled by default attached to the records. It thus remains difficult to assess the quality of final and track the creation and collection process of records.
One way to ensure a certain level of quality already in the outset, the volunteers train for their duties. With the skills acquired, the work can be carried out precisely and gaining credibility. This method is for example practiced in the bird count of the Audubon Society. To get there Teilnehmer_innen certain guidelines for the exact procedure to ensure that the information included are comparable.
The following measures are used to test data already collected on their kindness towards. For data already available on platforms enables the "wisdom of the masses", to find errors and repair (known as Linus 's Law ). This type of control can, however, only apply to restricted geographical information because it is abstruse points of places are not particular enough people who could correct any misinformation. Effective is a certain hierarchy in the user groups that assigns different rights depending on the rank. So you can use Moderatoren_innen, check the posts and rectify. For example, OpenStreetMap, a distinction by normal users and the Data Working Group. The latter has full permissions and can thus intervene in cases of vandalism or copyright issues. Even a comparison with known facts can be a statement about the quality of new data. Votes latter is not consistent with this information, one can assume an error. This is for example the case when a school appears in the parking lot of a shopping center on a map. From the context it is clear that one of the two pieces of information can not be true, and it must be checked and changed if necessary.
VGI as a " democratization" of cartography?
In the context of VGI is often said to contribute to the democratization of cartography, ie a wide audience can participate in the process of mapping and geographic information call the internet. However, there are several criticisms that suggest that this process is possible in principle and slow going, but is not yet completed.
The technical requirements are not available around the world in equal measure. So it V.A. missing in developing countries lack the necessary equipment. The term "digital divide" makes the differences in technological progress particularly clear. But even within the industrialized countries, urban and rural areas are not equally well connected to the broadband network. These different initial conditions have on the one hand the impact on access to information. Secondly, it can be assumed that in less favored regions VGI are collected and can be found on the net.
Furthermore, it is observed that only a minority of Nutzer_innen UGC projects such as OpenStreetMap regularly and to a greater extent collects data and shares online. The approximate distribution of user activity is doing in the 90-9-1 rule of Jakob Nielsen expressed: According to control 90 % of the Nutzer_innen not own contributions in, but use the applications as passive consumers. 9% contribute occasionally at something and only 1% is permanently active. What content are registered or available online on cards, thus also depends on the latter group. At this unequal distribution often contributes to the software used, for example, by the most active participants of a higher rank and thus also more extensive rights as a casual user. The latter are hardly motivated to increasingly contribute their own posts.
What VGI be included, also depends largely on the individual volunteer. These are predominantly male, educated and have a fine income, which allows them to purchase the necessary equipment. As a result, more data is added, whereas marginalized groups and generally favored areas are underrepresented in the data in privileged areas.
Demarcation from other terms
In connection with VGI drop another two terms that are consistent with the definition of VGI only in part.
Thus, for example, also from the "crowd sources of spatial data " spoken. Here is deliberately avoided the word " geography " in the glossary. This should be made clear that VGI is limited to the mere recording of data. Major parts of the scientific paper - such as creating models or the interpretation of the records - remain trained Wissenschaftlern_innen reserved.
Furthermore, to make the term " Neogeography " a distinction. Andrew Turner describes VGI also as collecting information. Neogeography however also includes other activities, including the visualization and sharing location-related data. The focus here is more focus on the individual person and how she deals with everyday life in the geographic information.
In German, there is no common equivalent. Already proposed the terms voluntary geography and user-generated Geomassendaten. Based on VGI as a subcategory of UGC, the analogy to the German translation of UGC would in user-generated (media) content lead user-generated geographic information on the concept.