Counterpoint

The counterpoint (from Latin contra punctum punctus = " note against note " ) is the most important compositional technique of the Renaissance and Baroque. She experienced under Johann Sebastian Bach a climax. In music theory, the simplest way of counterpoint is the " dissenting voice " to a given melody, which is also known as a cantus firmus. A fugue has such a melody, called topic or soggetto; the counterpoint plays around and accompanies the topic as a second voice. On this basis, the term counterpoint, the art and technology to invent dissenting votes given to tone sequences containing both a vertical (harmonic ) found meaningful harmony and a horizontally - linear ( melodic ) have meaningful autonomy.

The counterpoint as a compositional technique was defeated in the history of music changing rules that depend on the changing assessment of consonances and dissonances. An important role of counterpoint in polyphonic music in which the voices are striving after equality and independence (as opposed to homophony, which is characterized by a hierarchy between parent and minor melody accompaniment).

Since the mastery of contrapuntal laws for the composition of polyphonic music is of great importance, the term counterpoint in its broadest meaning also often equated with polyphony.

• 2.3.1 Introduction of dissonance
• 2.3.2 Resolution of dissonance

History

As the name Contrapunctus arose in the 14th century, the art of polyphonic rate was already very developed; as Regulae de contrapuncto (rules of counterpoint ) titled theoretical treatises, among other things, by Johannes de Muris and Philippe de Vitry, so bring nothing really new, but are treatises on the previously mentioned Discantus notation with a different terminology. You do this from the " note- against - note" principle ( punctus contra punctum or nota contra notam ), which is referred to by Muris expressly as the basis of polyphony ( fundamentum discantus ).

The unequal counterpoint, in which different large denominations are facing in the voices, called Muris " diminutio Contrapuncti " (aka: " Reduction of counterpoint ", ie, " reduced- counterpoint " ), a view which still exists today.

Sheet music sample by Muris ( diminutio Contrapuncti ):

The imitative forms of counterpoint in which the themes or motifs of the musical piece occur successively in different voices, reach back to the 13th century; Walter Odington ( 1228 bishop of Canterbury ) are from Rondellus the definition: " If what one sings, ( then ) all in turn recite " (Si quod unus cantat, omnes by ordinem recitent, Coussemaker, Script I, 245. ).

The contrapuntist the 15th and 16th century made ​​use of extensively in imitation of complex shapes. In the 17th and 18th centuries it developed into the joint. The strict canon with faster cast episode is a special form of counterpoint, the construction of his melody requires special care of the composer.

The double counterpoint is designed so that the two parts can be interchanged (the upper voice is the lower ), without coming into conflict with the time due to valid rules and prohibitions with respect to musical intervals, and other factors. One distinguishes the double counterpoint in the octave, in the tenth and the twelfth, depending on whether it is calculated for inversion by promotion to the octave, tenth or twelfth. A clear explanation of the different types of double counterpoint and canon, are already Zarlino in his Istitutioni armoniche ( 1558 ).

Highlights experienced the contrapuntal manner in the Renaissance and later in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, Jan Dismas Zelenka, Johannes Brahms, Max Reger and in the music of the 20th century, inter alia, with Anton Webern and Paul Hindemith. Hindemith is considered the size " contrapuntist " of his time, the first half of the 20th century. The the rock and jazz groups associated with Moondog and Gentle Giant used the counterpoint in almost every composition.

However, the stylus gravis, such as in Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, especially in the Roman Catholic church music for a long time retained its importance. In the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly Ferruccio Busoni dealt with the counterpoint. Textbooks of counterpoint in the old style (with the basis of the church modes ) of the Martini, Albrechtsberger, Luigi Cherubini, François -Joseph Fétis, Bellermann, Bussler, Fux and others; for this, the harmony is only a accidence, the rules are basically the same as in the days of Discantus than one of harmony still no clear concept had (interval teaching instead of harmony ). In contrast, the works of Dehn (B. Scholz ), judges, Tiersch lean and Others closer to the harmony at, among them the harmony is the actual school and the counterpoint of the sample through which the student must learn the pudding, this instinctively to handle.

End of the 19th century, the theory of counterpoint music theorists himself appeared so bogged down that some wrote critical:

' The counterpoint theory [ ... ] is the oldest form of the teaching of polyphonic set and formed in the 14th - 16th century in the highest perfection of. The distinction of perfect and imperfect consonances, on which the house rules of counterpoint teaching are based, comes from this time, which significantly enough it is characterized that one can take no textbook of counterpoint in his hand, without every step of the Latin, at least Italian terminology encounter. The cantus firmus could put up with, but what the mode rectus, oblique and contrarius, the Contrapunctus aequalis, diminitus, Ligatus and floridus and imitation teaching the proposta and risposta and all the rest of outdated slang are good, but absolutely no reason. "

Voice-leading rules

The main principles of counterpoint are:

• The individual voices to lead so that they can be perceived as independent melodies ( this is done primarily through asynchronous or complementary rhythm )
• To strive for a balanced exchange between stepwise motion and jumping movement
• To use the three types of movement side, parallel and contrary motion in a balanced mix
• Elements that tend to group formation, eg use sequences, repeated notes, triad steps and the like sparingly or avoid all
• Conceiving the harmony of the sentence as a result of the linear progression of the vote and not the reverse

Of course, the independence has its limits. Because the ear a harmony of several sounds, such as a rapid sequence of tones, only understood when summarizing the unity of the importance of a sound, the independent movement of multiple votes will be understood only if it allows the view in mind the same harmony.

That, for example, not a voice in the A flat major scale, but the other can move in the G major scale, is understandable in itself. But it is not enough that the progressions of both happen within the meaning of the same sound, but it must also be the position of this sound to others in both be the same perceived.

In classical harmony that goes back in its origins to the vocal polyphony of Palestrina, among others, the following voice-leading rules are developed.

Order of the counter-movement

Of the three possibilities of progression

Should always be used in the composite sounding voices with changing harmony least two simultaneously. Moves the bass down, the movement of the upper voice upwards of advantage and vice versa. Close other reasons of this, attempts should be made a counter-movement between the bass and middle voices ( in four -part harmony are the alto and tenor ) to generate.

Parallel ban

The simultaneous progression to the same interval of two voices, which have a distance of a prime, the perfect fifth or octave pure, is prohibited, as it threatens the independence of votes because of the strong fusion tendency of these intervals. Thirds and sixths, however, can be performed in parallel, but it should be (depending on style) ensured that rarely more than three thirds or sixths be performed in parallel. The best way to avoid or correct open parallel guides, the counter-movement of the votes.

Concealed parallels

Move two voices simultaneously in the same direction of movement and end in a Prime, fifth or octave, they should if possible not be both a jump ( interval of a third or greater ) do, but a one step ( second). This is especially important if it is only a few, three or only two votes. From covert parallels one speaks typically when a lower voice goes step by step and jump to an upper voice in the same direction in a perfect fifth or octave. Therefore, one does not speak of hidden parallels when a lower voice jumps and opens an upper voice to in the same direction in a fifth or octave. In double counterpoint, however ( that is, a lower voice must also function as upper voice ) are both parallel guides to avoid (especially in the two-part ).

Underlying this is the fact that inherent tones ( Partiale ) would then be parallel when they are really played. The impression of the parallel guidance remains the same. In this example, these are:

The C (covert ( immanent ) fifth of the F major sound) that would run in parallel to the upper fifth D of G major, and the Cis (covert ( immanent ) major third of the A -major sound) that would run in parallel to the octave D.

Diether de la Motte describes in his book Theory of Harmony that covert parallels have been applied in practice by all the major composers. So this is the prohibition of covert parallels to a subtlety that is not relevant to the practice.

Anti parallels

From anti- Parallels is when the source and target interval (taking into account octave transpositions ) are the same, but the movements go in different directions, such as the bass from C to G, the Ancient of g ' by d'. The distance between the two voices here is first one twelfth plus octave, then a twelfth. Also anti parallels are to be avoided in fifth and octave.

Dissonance treatment

Dissonance, for example, suspensions, should be introduced and resolved. Dissonance as a derivative action, changing note (also -note ) and passage are thus allowed.

Introduction of dissonances

The introduction of a dissonance occurs in that the later dissonant tone is initially in a consonant harmony, lie remains unchanged at progression of the other voices and dissonant is only through this progression of the other voices in the emerging sound.

Resolution of dissonance

The resolution of dissonance is basically gradual ( ie with Sekundschritt ). Exception is about the Chopin chord whose dissonant thirteenth is resolved by a third to the tonic.

Certain intervals

Multiple counterpoint

Show the votes interchange so that each voice can be both upper voice, middle voice as well as lower voice, without violating the respective contrapuntal rules, this is known as multiple counterpoint. If only two votes interchangeable, so this is called double counterpoint ( three times in three voices, etc. ). It should be noted that while reversing the intervals, that is, from the fifth is a perfect fourth from the third, a sixth. This is of importance, as in double counterpoint at the logrolling is the fifth to the fourth below and is therefore subject to the same restrictions as the fourth.

In addition, a distinction is the double counterpoint of the octave, in which the two relevant voices can be placed in the octave without unauthorized progressions arise and the double counterpoint of the twelfth ( octave fifth). The dissenting voice fits both in its original form ( in the octave ) and transposed by a fifth ( in the twelfth ) on the subject. Examples include the Kyrie fugue in Mozart's Requiem KV 626 and some fugues from Bach's " Art of Fugue" BWV 1080 The interval ratios vary according to the model. Twelfth is to Prim, eleventh to the secondary, tenth to third, etc.

In musical set as a whole and especially in counterpoint, the fourth is perceived as dissonant. The consonant intervals are respectively the major and minor third and sixth, as well as the perfectly consonant intervals fifth and octave.

The methods and set rules of counterpoint so are dependent on the sound system in Western music the church modes or major and minor tonality. The attempt at a merger has made Hugo Riemann in his " New School of melody " (1883 ).

Countersubject

The counter-subject is a form of counterpoint. It is a vote against the subject of a fugue, which continues the lines.

In contrast to the free counterpoint that appears only once in a fugue, the counter-subject is a contrapuntal dissenting vote, the repeated later in the joint use is ( = beibehaltener contrast ). In this case, small deviations are allowed as long as rhythm, movement and approach remain (either gradually or by leaps and bounds ) the same.