Hesychasm
The term Hesychasm (Greek ἡσυχασμός hēsychasmós ) is from the Greek word hesychia ( ἡσυχία Hesychia ) derived, which means " calm ", " calmness ", " silence ", " loneliness ", " serenity ", "peace". It is a form of originally Byzantine, later more widespread in other Orthodox churches spirituality that is attested since the 12th century. The roots lie in the conduct of ancient monasticism. In the 19th and early 20th century Hesychasm has received from the Russian Imjaslavie movement new momentum.
The praying Hesychasts repeated over long periods of the Jesus prayer. As a means to promote the concentration they turn to special breathing techniques. The aim is a state of complete outer and inner peace, which is considered a prerequisite for the experience of a special divine grace: In the opinion of the Hesychasts Praying can perceive the uncreated light of Tabor. The teaching that this light was perceptible, is a core part of hesychastic beliefs.
History
Ancient precursor
One with the hesychastic largely coincident prayer practice is detectable even in the era of the early church in the patristic monasticism. Already the apophthegms ( sayings ) of the " Desert Father" Anthony, the primal father of Christian monasticism, and other monks of the early period contain rules of conduct for monks as the " Keep your tongue " to maintain the vigilance and rest ( hesychia ). Biographies of these ascetics describe the corresponding practice. These influential in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages writings paint a picture of an ideal monk cells, which complies with the rules.
The desert father Evagrius Ponticus († 399 ), a pupil of the famous church father Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the precursors of Hesychasm, who lived in the Egyptian desert. There were monks who practiced a form of prayer, should help the worshiper help the incessant short appeals to God to find peace and to gain distance to the emotions. Evagrius taught, the worshiper would experience his unity with God, " as in a mirror ". Even Bishop Diadochos of Photike ( † before 486) recommended a practice continued prayers, whereby the name of the " Lord Jesus " realizes incessantly. The exact wording of his call to prayer is not to me, but it is apparently an early form of the Jesus Prayer. Diadochos meant that one could " clog outputs of the Spirit through the remembrance of God ", thus allowing the concentration. If the power of the soul completely master the passions, could the one who in the depths of his heart constantly considering the holy name, see the light of his own mind, as he was under the influence of the divine light. However, a vision of God or the divine light is the worshiper is not possible and one should be wary of deceptive visions of light that bring such an impression.
John Hesychastes ( 454-559 ), a late antique hermit monk whose surname identifies him as Hesychia practitioners, one of the authorities, of which the ideas originated, on the based of Hesychasm.
Beginnings and early history of the medieval Hesychasm
The in the late 6th and early 7th century ascetic monk and influential living writer John Climacus mentioned in his " ladder to heaven " the importance of connecting with the breath of prayer, thanks to the one who could recognize the usefulness hesychia. He was a precursor of hesychastic teachers of the 13th and 14th century, the reception are thought to be strong. The practice and the spiritual background of the Jesus Prayer treated Hesychius of Sinait ( Synaites ) in his paper "On the sobriety and virtue ", which also achieved a strong aftereffect. He also saw a connection between the breath and the prayer should " adhere " to the breath.
The medieval and modern Hesychasts emphasize the continuity of a reaching back to the time of the church fathers tradition in which they classify themselves. However, in the literature the terms " Hesychasm " and " Hesychasts " often for the ancient and early medieval precursors are not used, but only for reporting based on their ideas flow, the ausformte in the Byzantine monasticism from the 12th and 13th centuries. This flow, which spread over the whole Orthodox world later, forms the Hesychasm in the strict sense. It differs from the older tradition by placing the emphasis and elaboration of the physical aspects of contemplative practice. This includes the systematic use of tools such as the breathing technique. The center of the hesychastic movement were the monasteries on Mount Athos.
The oldest known hesychast in the proper sense Scripture is the "method of sacred worship and mindfulness" ( methodos tēs hierās proseuchēs kai prosochēs ). The name of its author is not known. Until the early 20th century Symeon the New Theologian ( 949-1022 ) was mistakenly referred to as the author of the work and thus regarded as the father of Hesychasm. Only recent studies - particularly the Church historian Irenaeus landlord - have shown that the specific hesychast practice of prayer is not attributable to him. However, Symeon knew and advocated this practice. His thoughts world has greatly influenced the formation and development of Hesychasm. In particular, its light imagery and his conviction of the visibility of the divine light, which he claimed to have seen himself, in accordance with the hesychastic setting.
Another important for the early period treatise, "On the sobriety and vigilance of the heart", built about the middle of the 13th century; its author was Nikephoros the hesychast, a native of Italy Athos monk. Among the best known representatives of Hesychasm in this era was one of the 13th and early 14th century, active, church politically influential theologian Theoleptos of Philadelpheia also. Church Politically, these early Hesychasts profiled as an opponent of a church union between the Orthodox and the Catholic Church. They emphasized the specific orthodox doctrines that separate the orthodoxy of Catholicism. So they went into opposition to Emperor Michael VIII, who forced the Union Church for political reasons in 1274.
Medieval heyday
In the early 14th century was one of the most important hesychastic teacher Gregorios Sinaites († 1346 ). Leading Gregorios was through the connection of Jesus prayer and breathing techniques and the concreteness of his instructions. He assembled on Mount Athos many disciples around him and later made the Hesychasm in the realm of the Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Alexander home. Ivan Alexander promoted the monastic foundations of Gregorios generous. In the Bulgarian monasteries monks were trained in the following period, which spread the Hesychasm in the whole non- Byzantine Orthodox world.
In Byzantine monasticism time of Hesychasm was already in full bloom. He now became the object of a bitter theological conflict ( " Hesychasmusstreit " ) between Hesychasts and Antihesychasten. The spokesman of the hesychastic side was the Athos monk Gregory Palamas ( 1296/1297-1359 ). His theology gave the hesychastic practice their theoretical rationale and justification. Palamas defended Hesychasm against the criticism Barlaams of Calabria. On several councils in Constantinople Opel fell in the period 1341-1351, the decision of the Byzantine church, first to condemn the opponents of Hesychasm and then to raise the theoretical justification of Hesychasm by Gregory Palamas ( " Palamismus " ) for binding Church teaching. In the period following the hesychast ideas found among Orthodox Christians general recognition, even outside the territory of the setting, destroyed in the 15th century Byzantine Empire, especially in Russia and the Slavic Balkans. As early as the late 14th century reached the Hesychasm Russia, where he was well received by hermits. The most notable Russian hesychast of the 15th century was the Nile Sorsky, who had learned the practice of prayer on Mount Athos.
At the turn of the 14th and 15th century wrote two monks, Ignatius Xanthopoulos and Kallistos Xanthopoulos, who for a short time as Kallistos II Patriarch of Constantinople Opel was in 1397, the " Centuries ", a handbook of Hesychasm, which describes in detail the life hesychast. With an abundance of quotations strove the two authors, the palamitischen Hesychasm, they represented to support statements by senior church authorities and to prove a legitimate continuation of old Orthodox tradition.
In Serbia, the Hesychasm summarized under Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović (1371-1389) foot. Lazar promoted the hesychastic monks and left numerous monasteries built. In Romania played the monk Nikodim ( Nicodemus ) of Tismana († 1406), who had lived on Mount Athos, a pioneer role. There, too, the Hesychasm strong support enjoyed by the princes.
Modern Times
In Greece, Athos monks held fast in the period of Turkish rule on the hesychastic tradition. Among the practitioners on Mount Athos, the scholar Nicodemus belonged Hagioreites ( Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain, 1749-1809 ). He issued the 1782 published in Venice five-volume collection of sources Philokalia, a collection of Greek texts of Orthodox spirituality. It includes instructions relevant authorities of the ancient Church Fathers up to the late medieval Hesychasts. With this work, which was very popular in the Orthodox world, Nicodemus the main contributor to the spread of Hesychasm outside of monasticism and rooting hesychastischer ideas in many laymen in the 19th century.
The main impetus to the renewal of Hesychasm in Russia gave the monk Paisij Veličkovskij (1722-1794), who translated the Philokalia into Church Slavonic. The translation was printed in 1793; Russian partial translations followed. The influence of the Russian Dobrotoljubie mentioned work on the religious life of the Russian Orthodox Church was enormous, the general public more than among the educated. Extraordinary reputation enjoyed the most famous Russian hesychast of the 19th century, Seraphim of Sarov († 1833). From the late 19th century, the honest stories of a Russian pilgrim played an important role. In 1870, first published in the first part of this work reported a pilgrim who wanted to learn to pray without ceasing, of the experiences on his pilgrimage, which led him to hesychastic masters ( Elders ) led. This popular account of an anonymous author has been translated into many languages. Through the Philokalia and the honest stories of Hesychasm had a lasting influence Orthodox lay spirituality.
In Western and Central Europe in the 19th and early 20th century the interest in Hesychasm, its history and its surviving practice was low. One of the first explorers of the subject in Germany belonged to the Protestant church historian Karl Holl. Significant contributions to the dissemination of knowledge in the West contributed in the 20th century, the Catholic theologian Albert M. Ammann and Georg Wunderle and especially the well-known Russian Orthodox theologian John Meyendorff. The emigrated, living in Paris Russian theologian Vladimir Lossky (1903-1958) developed a structure linked to hesychast tradition theology and defended Hesychasm against the criticism of Catholic theologians.
In Greece emerged in the second half of the 20th century theologians " neuorthodoxe " movement that palamitischen Hesychasm with a firm commitment to the Byzantine tradition and a sharp demarcation of the Orthodox faith of all Western influences connects. Your goal is to redefine the Orthodox identity. The life of the late medieval Hesychasts appears the " Neuorthodoxen " as exemplary. Thought leaders of this movement are John S. Romanides and Christos Yannaras, two little known in the West authors whose theories have attracted considerable attention in Greek theologian circles since 1956 Romanides formulated in his much-publicized since dissertation core ideas that direction. In the same vein Bishop Hierotheos tends ( Vlachos ), whose theology is heavily influenced by Romanides.
The hesychast approach is one of three basic elements of the pastoral concept Mental Turning Point, which was developed by the Lutheran theologian Sabine Bobert.
In the Catholic sector has developed in the late 20th century, the Centering Prayer, whose practitioners rely among other things on the hesychast tradition.
Practice
The focus of the hesychastic practice is the " mental prayer " (Greek noerá proseuche ), which is usually abbreviated Jesus prayer. In contrast to the common liturgical prayer is the hesychast individually, the worshiper is always alone. From hesychastischer view is emphasized that, although the spread in various versions of Jesus prayer includes petitions, but is not to be construed as supplication. It does not serve the purpose to present wishes of the worshipers. Rather, it is primarily about worship. Although the hesychia is a state of rest, but should not be confused with inaction this; the hesychast prayer is traditional - especially in Russia - regarded them as " work". Because of the requirement of sustained attention over a long period of time, it makes considerable demands on the concentration of the practitioner. Therefore, the hesychast literature dealing with this problem and gives this advice.
In the sincere stories of a Russian pilgrim anknüpft the authors of the Philokalia, detailed instructions are given. According to them, should the hesychast in a sitting position, repeating incessantly with head bowed and eyes closed, the Jesus Prayer. He tries to drive foreign thoughts. He leads his spirit ( his mind ) "from the head to the heart ." The prayer he speaks softly or even just in the mind. He focuses his attention on the heart, considered the seat of the soul, and pays attention on his breath, in the rhythm he prays.
For the breath is already recommended in Byzantine Hesychasm that you breathe calmly and coordinates the words of the prayer with the inhaling and exhaling. It is emphasized in the hesychastic literature and especially in the Athos monks that external aspects such as posture and breathing techniques are just a means for restraint. The breathing exercise is indeed helpful and highly recommended, but one should not be regarded as the essentials. The desired peace is not an end in itself, but only a prerequisite for the attainment of the spiritual goal for the Hesychasts.
Among the traditional practices and the navel-gazing part (focus on the belly button ). She was and is not a required part of the hesychastic practice and is usually discussed by critics. Marked Hesychasmusstreit already in the 14th century the Antihesychast Barlaam of Calabria who criticized him of monks as " navel souls " or " people with the soul in the navel " ( omphalopsychoi ).
Among the powers of the soul, the faculties of the soul, the will does not apply, but the highest part of the faculty of knowledge as the key factor that enables the experience of the special divine grace in the show. The hesychastic authors estimate and recommend the monastic life, and especially the world-denying hermit life, silence is important to them. In the Modern Hesychasm but a strict monastic life is not seen as a necessary condition for obtaining the hesychia called peace of mind. Decisive is the inner distance to the external conditions that will obtain the hesychast and always keep. Even prominent late medieval Hesychasts ( Gregorios Sinaites, Gregory Palamas ) felt that hesychast spirituality is to practice not only in the context of an externally secluded life. To what extent it is also suitable for laymen, went about among the medieval Hesychasts opinions differ.
In Palamismus the culmination of possible experience of grace hesychastisch praying is the vision of the Tabor light. It is light visions. The praying Hesychasts my perceive a supernatural light, which they equate with the light in which, according to the Gospels, Christ was transfigured on a mountain. This light is called Tabor light, because the mountain is by extra-biblical tradition to Mount Tabor. Since the Tabor light applies in Hesychasm as " uncreated ", ie not as part of creation, so that the claim is made, if it were an immediate experience ( πείρα PEIRA ) God in His uncreated reality. Therefore, in representations of Hesychasm is of a ( non-image ) " vision of God " is mentioned often. However, this perception relates, in the opinion of Palamas not on God's inaccessible nature, but only to its disclosed and therefore tangible energies (active forces).
Within the late medieval Hesychasm there was a direction that emphasized that not all visions of light are authentic. The influential hesychast Gregorios Sinaites, a contemporary of Palamas, warned against deceptive visions, the products of the imagination are, but he also was convinced that the Tabor light to be perceived in the present as well as the time of Jesus and should.
Is learned the hesychast pray under the guidance of an experienced practitioner. In the 14th century there was also a self-taught learners who thought they were only at the instructions in the literature, as they stood no teacher available.
In Byzantine monasticism the hesychast praying in the traditional, dating back to the ancient practice of Wüstenmönchtum constant struggle was embedded against their own vices.
Criticism and controversy
In his late medieval heyday of Hesychasm came within Orthodoxy fierce opposition directed against its theological foundations. In the Byzantine Empire, he might call himself after heavy clashes prevail in the mid- 14th century, which meant a definite course for the entire orthodoxy, but in the Catholic West found his theological presuppositions no consent. Even in modern times the hesychast theology has not been accepted in the Western churches. Since she still is binding doctrine in the Orthodox Churches, this disagreement is a fundamental difference between Western and Eastern churches dar.
In the conflict that raged in the Byzantine church in the 14th century, both sides relied on generally accepted theological authorities, and in particular Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, and accused the other side deviation from the tradition and heresy.
From hesychastischer page has always stressed, both in the Middle Ages and in modern times that the worshiper given to expectant show does not concern the nature of God, traditionally there is consensus about its inaccessibility in the Orthodox theology. Experienced were only God's energies (active forces), which are indeed uncreated, so divine, and no part of creation, but could be revealed to man. The distinction between the essence and the uncreated active forces was and is fundamental to the theological justification of hesychastic concept. But she was not an innovation of Palamas or other Hesychasts but old teaching material of the Orthodox Church, which is already in late antiquity at St. Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa, two of the most renowned Church Fathers to be found. Even the influential early medieval theologian Maximus the Confessor and John of Damascus was the distinction familiar.
Despite the consensus on the unknowability of God's essence and the restriction of visibility to the active forces, the doctrine has energized by the vision of the Tabor light at the eastern and western critics of Hesychasm strongest impetus. The related question of the knowledge of God was at the center of clashes between Palamas and his theological opponents.
Particularly vulnerable was from the perspective of Antihesychasten the assertion that what the praying Hesychasts experience was nothing less than an immediate experience of God in His uncreated reality. The Antihesychasten accused the Hesychasts the assumption that the intangible and transcendent God can be seen with earthly eyes, a broken preconceived than physical reality of light to be equated with God. In contrast, addressed the protest of the opponents of Hesychasm. They argued that such a doctrine is incompatible with God's transcendence, the idea of a visible deity was a monstrosity. Only God is uncreated being inaccessible, uncreated potencies of God can not exist. Such potencies of God to distinguish and separate beings is inadmissible because it is incompatible with God's unity and simplicity and inevitably lead to polytheism. The Hesychasm is nothing more than the heresy of Messalianism. Barlaam of Calabria claimed the Tabor light was just a sensuous, ephemeral, not really existing phenomenon that only as a symbol have a meaning.
The thought Palamas contrary, the hesychast show was not sensual, because they will not receive through the senses, and not intellectual, because it presupposes a cessation of all mental activity. The Tabor light will indeed taken with the eyes, but this is not really a sensation, because the hesychast see the light neither his body nor his intellect, but by the Holy Spirit. According to Palamas ' view one does not look that way with the senses, but is this show even more clearly as a sensual. The uncreated light is not perceived with the physical eyes, but with " eyes transformed " by the power of the Holy Spirit. Palamas argued that a natural light must be visible for everyone through the air, which is not the case with the uncreated light. The uncreated light see the individual hesychast only because of his virtue and his spawned by this virtue of purity and not due to the purity of the air. Gregorios Sinaites also emphasized the sensuousness of light experience. Fully reasoned and explained the doctrine of Palamas Ungeschaffenheit of the active forces. His fight for this doctrine he regarded as part of the struggle between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, the Church of the " Latins ". He suspected his opponent Barlaam of Calabria, to sympathize with the Catholics. In fact, Barlaam is later, after its defeat in Hesychasmusstreit, converted to Catholicism. However, the front was in conflict about the union between the Orthodox and the Catholic Church is not the same as in Hesychasmusstreit. Among the opponents of Hesychasm palamitischen were both supporters of the Church Union as Demetrios Kydones as well as sharp -minded anti-Catholic theologians such as Gregory Akindynos and Nikephoros Gregoras.
Source translations
- Albert M. Ammann: The vision of God in palamitischen Hesychasm. A handbook of the late Byzantine mysticism. 5th Edition, Genuine, Würzburg 2002, ISBN 978-3-429-04098-7 ( German translation of the late medieval hesychastic Handbook of monks Kallistos and Ignatius Xanthopoulos )
- Gregor Hohmann et al ( eds ): Philokalia of the Holy Fathers of sobriety. 5 volumes, published by The Christian East, Würzburg 2004, ISBN 3-927894-37-0 (as well as separate Index, 2nd edition 2007 )