Lorentz ether theory

Lorentz ether theory (also new mechanics, Lorentz electrodynamics, Lorentz's electron theory, according to the English " Lorentz ether theory" often LET abbreviated ) was the end point in the development of the idea of ​​the classic light-ether in which light waves analogous to water waves and sound waves in a medium spread. The theory was developed primarily by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Henri Poincaré and then replaced by the mathematically equivalent, but in the interpretation of spacetime much deeper theory of special relativity by Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski.

• 2.6.1 The theories of Lorentz
• 2.6.2 Poincaré Lorentz - invariant law of gravitation

• 3.1 constancy of the speed of light
• 3.2 Principle of Relativity
• 3.3 The role of the ether

• 4.1 Special Theory of Relativity
• 4.2 equivalence of mass and energy
• 4.3 General Theory of Relativity

• 6.1 New Lorentzianismus
• 6.2 Test theories of special relativity

• 7.1 Working of Lorentz, Poincaré, Einstein
• 7.2 Secondary sources
• 7.3 Sources of recent work
• 7.4 Notes and references

Problem

The assumption of a stationary ether seems to contradict the result of the Michelson -Morley experiment in which the evidence of the earth's motion failed relative to this ether. In the Lorentz ether theory, this contradiction between the introduction of Lorentz transformations is dissolved. However, the length contraction and time dilation are seen as processes that relative to an ether moving rods and clocks are subjected, while space and time remain unchanged. Thus, these effects are considered to be asymmetric, that is, moving standards are actually shorter and actually clocks go slower. A moving observer estimates dormant standards, although in an identical manner as the shorter and slower than a stationary clock, this assessment is interpreted as deception, because she wins the moving observer using falsified rods and clocks. The symmetry of the observations and thus the apparent validity of a seeming relativity principle is interpreted as a consequence of a rather random symmetry of the underlying dynamic processes. However, it prevents the possibility to determine your speed relative to the ether, and thus makes it a principle inaccessible size in theory. Such variables should be expressed according to a parsimony principle of Occam ( " Occam's razor" ) be avoided, which is a reason why this theory is considered outdated and is rarely represented.

In the special theory of relativity, time dilation and length contraction, however, are a consequence of the properties of space and time and not by physical rods and clocks. The symmetry of these effects is a consequence of the equivalence of the observers as the underlying principle of relativity theory. All sizes of the theory are experimentally accessible.

Historical development

Basic concept

Ether and electrons

Lorentz's ether theory, which was developed mainly between 1892 [A 1] and in 1906 by Lorentz and Poincaré, was based on the development of Augustin Jean Fresnel's ether theory, Maxwell's equations and the electron theory of Rudolf Clausius. [B 1] Lorentz introduced a strict separation between matter (electrons) and ether, where in his model of the ether is completely immobile and is not carried by moving objects. Max Born [B 2] identified the Lorentz ether then ever with the absolute space of Isaac Newton. The condition of this ether can by the electric field E and the magnetic field H can be described in terms of the Maxwell - Lorentz electrodynamics, these fields have been interpreted as caused by the charges of the electron excitation states or vibrations in the ether. Therefore present an abstract electromagnetic ether in place of the older mechanical ether models. Unlike Clausius, who assumed that the electrons interact through long-range effect, Lorentz took as an intermediary between the electrons at this same electromagnetic field of the ether in which effects can propagate at a maximum speed of light. Lorentz example, could explain the Zeeman effect theory, for which he was awarded the 1902 Nobel Prize for his theory. Joseph Larmor designed about the same time Lorentz (1897, 1900), a similar electron or ether theory, but based off of a mechanical ether.

Corresponding states

A fundamental concept of the theory was the 1895 [A 2] introduced by Lorentz ' theorem of corresponding states " for sizes (ie for velocities that are small compared to the speed of light ) from which it follows that a moving in the ether observers approximately the same observations in his " fictitious" field makes such a resting in the ether observers in his " real" field. This theorem was extended by Lorentz (1904 ) [A 3] for all sizes and in accordance with the principle of relativity of Poincaré (1905, 1906) [ A4 ] [ A5 ] and Lorentz (1906, 1916) [A 6] completes.

Length contraction

A major challenge for this theory was carried out in 1887 Michelson-Morley experiment. [A 7] According to the theories of Fresnel and Lorentz had with this experiment, a relative motion must be found to the ether, the results were negative. Albert Abraham Michelson himself suspected that the result for a complete entrainment of the ether talking about, but other experiments, the aberration and the Maxwell - Lorentz electrodynamics were hardly compatible with a full entrainment.

A solution suggested itself when Oliver Heaviside in 1889 Maxwellian electrodynamics evolved and noticed that shortened by a moving spherical body in the direction of movement by a factor of the electrostatic field was ( the so-called Heaviside ellipsoid). Following that beat George Francis FitzGerald (1889 ) (although only qualitative) and independent of him Lorentz in 1892 [A 8] ( already elaborated quantitatively ) states that not only electrostatic but also the molecular forces during the motion through the ether on, however, unknown, may be influenced in such a manner that the interferometer is located in the movement direction shorter than the approximate factor of the projecting part at right angles thereto. Lorentz himself suggested in 1895 [A 2] various possibilities to bring about the relative reduction:

• The interferometer contracted in the direction of motion and does not change its length perpendicular to it.
• The length of the interferometer is equal to the direction of movement, but dilated perpendicular thereto.
• The interferometer contracted in the direction of motion and dilated simultaneously vertically on a somewhat larger scale it.

Lorentz contraction measured in ether length L0 in the direction of movement (without expansion perpendicular thereto ) according to the precision factor is specified later Larmor (1897) and Lorentz (1904 ) [A 3]: A comoved to ground observer would by this contraction which is the case of the movement of the earth around the sun only 1/200.000.000, notice anything because all scales are equally affected by this effect. [B 3]

Although the link between electrostatic and intermolecular forces was by no means necessary, and the theory was pretty soon even referred to as " ad hoc" and by Lorentz as " strange," Lorentz could cite at least the relationship with the shortening of electrostatic fields as a plausibility argument in favor of the hypothesis. It is important that such contraction is not concerned, however, only the distance between the electrons, the electrons themselves, therefore the contraction original hypothesis has also been referred to as " inter- molecular " hypothesis. The electrons themselves were included by Lorentz in 1904 in the contraction. [B 4]. For the further development of the contraction hypothesis, see the section Lorentz transformation

Local

An important part of the theorem of corresponding states was that of Lorentz in 1892 and 1895 [A 2] introduced local time, where t is the time coordinate, which is used in the ether observer at rest and t 'is the value that uses a moving observer to the ether. (Where Woldemar Voigt 1887 also have the same local time used in conjunction with the Doppler effect and a non-compressible medium). But while for Lorentz length contraction was a real, physical effect, meant to him the local time for the time being only an agreement or useful method of calculation. With the help of local time and the mathematical formalism of its corresponding states Lorentz could explain the aberration of light, the Doppler effect and the measured in the Fizeau experiment depending on the speed of light in moving fluids, without a "partial entrainment " of the ether (in the sense of the ether theory of Fresnel be required to adopt ). However, it was not initially realized that from the local time follows the existence of time dilation. This was defined by Larmor in 1897, when he realized by combining the local time by a factor that periodic processes of moving objects in the ether expired slower than stationary objects. This came out then also from the work of Lorentz 1899 [A 9] realized that when referring the vibrations of a moving oscillating electron on the mathematical local time, this seemingly run slower. [B 5]

Unlike Lorentz Poincaré saw in the local more than a mathematical trick. As he wrote in 1898 in a philosophical essay: [A 10]

"We have no immediate intuition of the simultaneity, nor for the equality of two periods. If we think we have this intuition, this is an illusion. We adhere to certain rules we usually apply, without giving us an account of [ ... ] We select these rules, not because they are true, but because they are the most comfortable, and we can combine them and say: The simultaneity of two events or their succession and the equality of two periods must be defined such that the wording of the laws of nature is as easy as possible. "

In 1900 he interpreted then the local time as a result of a study carried out with light signals synchronization. He assumed that two observers moving in the ether A and B synchronize their clocks with optical signals. Because they believe to be in peace, they go out of the constancy of the speed of light. Therefore, only need to take into account the light travel times and their signals to cross check whether their clocks are synchronized. In contrast, from the perspective of a stationary observer in the ether runs a clock signal to the counter, and the other runs away him. The watches are so out of sync, but only show the local time. As the observer but have no means to determine whether they are moving or not, they will not notice anything from the error [A 11] In 1904, he illustrated the same method in the following way: . A sends at time 0 a signal to B, which displays on arrival t. And B sends a signal at time 0 to A, which displays upon arrival t. If in both cases t yields the same value are therefore Poincaré understood in contrast to Lorentz synchronously. [A 12] watches the local time as well as the length contraction [B 6] In contrast to Einstein, a similar procedure used as a real physical effect. 1905 which is known as the Einstein synchronization today, Poincaré, however, remained in his view, " comfortable " notion that the "true" time will appear still only of resting in the ether watches. [A 12]

Lorentz transformation

While the local time could explain only the negative aether drift experiments for speeds of the first order, it soon became ( for example, because of the Trouton -Noble experiment ) to explain necessary to Undetectability the ether for all orders of magnitude. The mathematical tools for this was the Lorentz transformation. This has been derived in part in 1887 by Voigt, however, used this so-called Voigt transform an incorrect scale factor. Lorentz was in 1895 [A 2] with the local time for quantities to v / c in the possession of similar equations. Joseph Larmor (1897 ) and Lorentz (1899, but with an undetermined factor ) [A 9] finally extended these equations for sizes of order v ² / c ² and gave them a form which is equivalent to those used today. 1904 [A 3] Lorentz came very close to a theory in which all the forces between the molecules of whatever nature they may be, are subject in the same way, the Lorentz transformation, such as electrostatic forces - ie He was able to demonstrate the degree of independence of the physical effects of the movement of the earth. He extended his contraction hypothesis and stated that not only the space between the electrons, but the electrons themselves are subjected to contraction. A problem of longitudinal contraction when they are applied to the electron itself has, however, Max Abraham (1904) demonstrated: According to the electromagnetic theory, could not remain stable for a system of the contracted electrons, and it will need an additional non- electrical power, the existence of Abraham was doubted. To refute this objection led Poincaré (1905 ), the so-called " Poincaré stresses " one. This is an external pressure, which should explain not only the stability of matter, but also the existence of length contraction itself. [B 7] ( Abraham's criticism and the Poincaré voltages, see also the section EM rest mass and EM energy. )

After Paul Langevin (1905 ) this extension of the theory of Lorentz and Larmor actually leads to the physical impossibility of discovering a motion to the ether. As Poincaré but on June 5, 1905 [A 5] showed it was Lorentz been unable to show the full Lorentz covariance of the electromagnetic equations. He corrected the flaw in Lorentz ' application of equations ( eg in connection with the charge density and velocity), and showed the group property of this transformation, spoke of "the postulate of complete impossibility of determining an absolute motion " and said the possibility of a gravitational theory (including gravitational waves ), which corresponded to these transformations. (Where significant parts of this work were already contained in two letters, which were written by Poincaré about May 1905 in Lorentz. During the first letter corrected Poincaré the electrodynamic equations of Lorentz, [A 13] and in the second he founded the group property of the Lorentz transformation and formulated the relativistic addition theorem for velocities. [A 14] )

Wherein is a function of which must be set equal to 1 in order to obtain the group property. The speed of light he continued also to 1

A significantly expanded version of this document ( also known as the Palermo - work) [A 4] was submitted on 23 July 1905 but not published until January 1906, which also was the fact that the journal in question appeared only twice a year. ( Einstein published his work on the electrodynamics exactly between the two of Poincaré. ) In connection with its gravitational conception showed Poincaré that the combination is invariant and thereby introduced the term as a fourth coordinate of a four-dimensional space one - he used this four-vectors before Minkowski. He spoke of the " postulate of relativity "; he showed that the transformations a consequence of the principle of least action are and he demonstrated more fully than before the group property, which he coined the name Lorentz group ( " Le groupe de Lorentz "). However, Poincaré remarked later that a reformulation of physics in a four-dimensional language is possible, but too cumbersome and therefore have little benefit, which is why he did not pursue its related approaches. This was later done only by Minkowski. [B 8]

Mass, energy and velocity

JJ Thomson ( 1881) and other noted that electromagnetic energy contributes to the mass of charged particles, and by the amount which has been referred to as an electromagnetic or " apparent" bulk. Another derivation is from Poincaré (1900 ), said pulse of electromagnetic radiation used to maintain the principle of the conservation of the focus movement, and thereby found that relation.

It has also been noticed that the mass with the speed increases. Various authors such as Thomson, Searle, Abraham, Bucherer now gave different values ​​, where a distinction was made between perpendicular to the longitudinal mass in the moving direction and the transverse mass. Lorentz found it in 1899 ( with an undetermined factor) and 1904 following relations: [A 3]

Where

These relationships were examined with the Kaufmann- Bucherer - Neumann experiments on cathode rays, which have long been controversial, however. Many researchers now believed that the total mass and all forces are of electromagnetic origin. However, this idea had to be abandoned because Abraham showed that non- electromagnetic bonding forces necessary to stabilize the Lorentz 's electron. He also calculated that different results are obtained when the longitudinal mass is calculated based on the energy or its momentum. To solve this problem, Poincaré in 1905 [A 5] and 1906 [A 4 ] introduced a potential non- electromagnetic nature a ( Poincaré stresses), which contributes to the energy of the body and thus explain the 4/3-Faktor. However, he was still assume that only the electromagnetic energy contributes to the mass. [B 9] This assumption was replaced by Einstein's equivalence of mass and energy, according to which the total energy, not only the electromagnetic, contributes to the mass of the body. [ B 10 ]

Gravity

The theories of Lorentz

Lorentz tried in 1900, [A 15 ] on the basis of the Maxwell - Lorentz electrodynamics also to explain the phenomenon of gravitation. First, he suggested a framework, based on the Le Sage gravity mechanism. He assumed here that the ether is filled with an extremely high frequency EM radiation which exerts enormous pressure on the body. Now if this radiation is completely absorbed, caused by shielding between the bodies actually a law following the distance " attraction ". However, this was the same problem as with the other Le Sage models: the case of absorption, the energy must vanish somewhere, or it would have come to an enormous heat production, which is not observed. Lorentz rejected this model therefore.

In the same work, he then tried to explain gravitation as a kind of electric power difference. He went as Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti before him and Karl Friedrich Zöllner from the idea that the attraction of two of unlike electric charges more for a fraction either as the repulsion of two charges of the same name. The result would be nothing else than the universal gravitation, which propagate changes in the gravitational field with the speed of light according to this theory. However, this leads to conflict with the law of gravitation Isaac Newton, in which, as Pierre- Simon Laplace has shown by the aberration of gravity that the propagation velocity should be a multiple of the speed of light. Lorentz was able to show that in this theory due to the structure of the Maxwell equations only negligible deviations from the law of gravitation in the order occur. However, he received a much too low a value for the perihelion advance. 1908 [ A 16 ] Poincaré also investigated the requirement imposed by Lorentz 's theory of gravitation and classified it as compatible with the principle of relativity, however, criticized how the Lorentz inaccurate indication of the perihelion rotation of Mercury. Lorentz himself, however, rejected its own model in 1914 because he did not regard it as incompatible with the principle of relativity. Instead, he looked at Einstein's work on gravitation and the principle of equivalence as the most promising of explanation. [A 17]

Poincaré Lorentz - invariant law of gravitation

Poincaré introduced in 1904 [A 12] found that in order to maintain the principle of relativity, no signal may be faster than the speed of light, otherwise above synchronization rule and thus the local time would no longer apply. This was seen by him at this time as a possible objection to the compatibility of the relativity principle with the new theory. However, he calculated in 1905 [A 5] and 1906 [A 4] that changes in the gravitational field can propagate at the speed of light and still a valid law of gravity is possible, provided such a theory is the Lorentz transformation applied. Later also tried Minkowski (1908 ) and Arnold Sommerfeld ( 1910), Poincaré's approach to building a Lorentz - invariant law of gravitation to design, but this was rendered redundant by the work of Einstein. [B 11]

Principles and conventions

Constancy of the speed of light

Already in his philosophical treatise on the time measurements (1898 ) [A 10] wrote Poincaré that astronomers such as Ole Rømer must start from the postulate in the interpretation of the measurement of the speed of light based on the moons of Jupiter, that the light is constant and equally in all directions is fast. Otherwise, other laws such as the law of gravity would be much more complicated. (However, this is not entirely clear whether, after Poincaré this postulate is valid for all frames of reference. ) Similarly, the propagation speed in determining the simultaneity of events must be considered. This procedure resulted Poincaré 1900 [ A 11 ] Finally, in his interpretation of the Lorentz's local time, wherein the local time ( in addition to the contraction hypothesis) is necessary for the observed validity principle of relativity as Poincaré stressed repeatedly. [B 12 ] [B 13] and 1904 he summed up the relationship between the Lorentz 's theory and the speed of light in this way: [A 12]

" From all these results would be if they are confirmed, they emerge a whole new method that would mainly characterized by the fact that no velocity could surpass that of light can fall as well as no temperature below absolute zero. For an observer, which is carried himself in a him unconscious movement, no apparent speed could also surpass that of light, and this would be a contradiction if you did not recall that this observer would not use the same clocks as a fixed observer but such watches that show the " local time ". [ ..] I thought we would have to invent a whole new mechanics that we only succeed indistinct, which, since the resistance increases with the speed, the speed of light would become an impassable limit. The ordinary mechanics would simply remain a first approximation, it would be true for velocities not too great, so that you would still find the old dynamics under the new ... but I add in conclusion added explicitly that we do not so are wide, and that is still no proof that they are not victorious and untouched emerge from the struggle [ the principles of ordinary mechanics ]. "

Principle of relativity

In 1895 [A 18] adopted Poincaré that the Michelson - Morley experiment seems to show that it is impossible for an absolute motion or the motion of matter measured relative to the ether. And although most physicists very well thought this was possible, Poincaré was also 1900 [ A 19 ] for his opinion and alternately used the terms " principle of relative motion," or " relativity of space ". But he criticized the artificiality of the same designed to conveniently assumptions to save this principle. Finally he used in 1902 [A 20] for the term " principle of relativity ". 1904 [A 12] He praised the one hand, the work of the mathematicians who have saved this principle with hypotheses such as the local time, but criticized again the " accumulation of hypotheses ". He defined this principle ( according to Miller [B 14], in a modification of Lorentz's theorem of corresponding states ) as follows: "The principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physical processes for a stationary observer to be the same as for a in uniform translation were moving, so we have no means or may have to distinguish whether we are conceived in such a movement or not. " [B 15]

Referring to these objections Poincaré, Lorentz tried to make a more coherent theory, and wrote in 1904: [A 3] " Surely this is liable setting up of special hypotheses for each new experimental result of something artificial. More satisfying would it could be shown with the aid of certain fundamental assumptions that many electromagnetic processes, that are strictly and without neglecting higher-order terms, regardless of the motion of the system. "

Although Poincaré in 1905 showed that Lorentz had his work not completed, he wrote this postulate to: [A 5] " Il semble que cette impossibilité de le mouvement démontrer absolute soit une loi générale de la nature [ ..] a Lorentz cherché à compléter et à modifier but hypothèse de façon à la mettre en concordance avec le postulate de l' impossibilité complète de la determination du mouvement absolute. C'est ce qu'il a réussi dans son article intitulé [ Lorentz, 1904b ] " ( German: . " It seems that this impossibility, the absolute motion of the earth to determine a universal law of nature is [ ..] Lorentz tried to his hypothesis complete and modify to bring it in line with the postulate of the complete impossibility of determining an absolute movement. he succeeded in his article [ Lorentz, 1904b ] ")

1906 [A 4] called Poincaré this as the " postulate of relativity " ( " postulate de relativité "). And although he stated that this postulate could perhaps be refuted (and in fact, he mentioned that the discovery of the magnetic cathode rays by Paul Villard (1904 ) endangers the theory [ B 16 ] ), it is nevertheless interesting to consider the consequences if the postulate without restriction was valid. This also implies that all the forces of nature (not only electromagnetic ) are invariant under the Lorentz transformation.

1921 [A 21] also paid tribute to the achievements of Lorentz Poincaré in connection with the establishment of the principle of relativity: " ... the n'ai pas le principe de établi relativité comme rigoureusement et universellement vrai. Poincaré, au contraire, a obtenu une invariance parfaite of équations de l' électrodynamique, et il a le formule " postulate de relativité " qu'il a été le premier termes a employer. " ( German: " ... I have not established the principle of relativity as rigorously and universally valid Poincaré, however, has reached the perfect invariance of the electromagnetic equations, and he put it. " The postulate of relativity ", where he has these terms used as the first. " )

The role of the ether

Poincaré wrote in 1889 in line with its philosophy of conventionalism: [A 22] " It takes care of us little as to whether the ether really exists; that is a matter of the metaphysician; essential for us is just that everything takes place as if it existed, and that this hypothesis is convenient for the explanation of phenomena. Have we the way some other cause, to believe in the existence of material objects? Also this is only a convenient hypothesis, but they will never cease to exist, while the ether one day will no doubt be discarded as useless. "

In 1901, he denied the existence of an absolute space or absolute time from: [A 23] " 1 There is no absolute space, and we comprehend only relative movements; nevertheless it is called the mechanical facts from often as if there were an absolute space to which you could refer them. 2 There is no absolute time; when we say that two times are the same, this is an assertion that in itself has no meaning and which can be obtained only by such agreements. 3 Not only have we no direct intuition of the equality of two hours, but we have not heard of the simultaneity of two events which pass that on various locales in front of him; I have in an essay under the title set forth la mesure du temps ".

However, Poincaré used the ether concept further and established the benefit of the ether 1900 [ A 19], that must be declared, where the light beam is actually located after it has left the source before it reaches the receiver. For in the mechanics must be a condition accurately determined by the previous state. So in order not to have to give up the simplicity and convenience of the mechanical laws of nature, a material support was needed. And although he stressed the relative and conventional character of space and time, he believed that the classic convention " convenient " and went on, between the "true" and time to distinguish the "apparent ". For example, he wrote in 1912 on the question whether the usual conventions on space and time must be actually changed: [A 24] "Are we forced to form our conclusions? Certainly not! We have adopted an agreement because it seems to us comfortable, and said that nothing could force us to abandon it. Today some physicists want to take on a new agreement. Not that they would be forced to do so; they are of the view that this agreement is more convenient; that's all. Who is not this view may with full permission to stay with the old, in order not to let it spoil his usual performances. I think between ourselves that we will do it for a long time. "

And also Lorentz wrote in 1913: [A 25] " Suppose there were an ether; then would be under all systems x, y, z, t of a distinguished in that the coordinate axes and the clock rest in the ether. If you connect with this, the idea (which I 'd hate to give up), that space and time are something entirely different, and that there is a " real time" ( the simultaneity would then exist independently from the place, according to the fact that the idea of ​​us infinite high speeds is possible), so it is easily seen that this time would have to be true, appears just out of clocks that rest in the ether. Now, if the principle of relativity in nature would have general validity, it would however not be able to determine whether the reference system currently in use is that excellent. "

The transition to the theory of relativity

Special Theory of Relativity

While some related to the electron theory of Lorentz explanations (eg that matter consisted exclusively of electrons, or that there is in nature only electrical interactions, or the listed gravitational explanations ) are clearly refuted, many statements and results of the theory is equivalent with statements of special relativity theory (SRT, 1905) by Albert Einstein. Here succeeded Einstein, the Lorentz transformation and the other parts of the theory solely from the adoption of two principles, namely the principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light, dissipate. These principles were partly used by Poincaré and Lorentz, but they did not recognize that they are also sufficient to establish a complete theory without the use of ether or any assumed characteristics of matter. Although First Poincaré and Lorentz then taught the complete mathematical equality of the reference systems, and acknowledged that indeed different space and time coordinates are measured. They continued this, due the effects of the Lorentz transformation on dynamic interactions with the ether, a distinction between the "true" time in the stationary ether system and the "apparent " time relative to moving systems, and mentioned the ether to last in their writings. The fundamental reassessment of space and time in the context of a scientific theory was Einstein Reserved. [ 17 B ] [B 18]

Einstein's presentation of the SRT 1907 was extended by Hermann Minkowski, whose four-dimensional spacetime a very natural interpretation of the relationship of theory enabled (the basic aspects of the four-dimensional space-time were described as already anticipated by Poincaré ). The naturalness and usefulness of the representation by Einstein and Minkowski contributed to the acceptance of the SRT and a decrease of interest in Lorentz's ether theory at. Although Lorentz himself argued in 1913 that between his ether theory and the rejection of a preferred reference system there is no great difference and it therefore a matter of taste whether to which theory one professes. [A 25] However, criticized Einstein in 1907 the ad hoc nature of the contraction hypothesis, because it was introduced solely to the rescue of the ether, one undiscoverable ether as the foundation of electrodynamics was unsatisfactory [A 26] also called Minkowski 1908, the contraction hypothesis in the context of Lorentz 's theory as a "gift from above".; but although Lorentz ' theory is completely equivalent with the new concept of space and time, Minkowski was of the opinion that the relationships in the new space -time physics will be much easier to understand. [B 19]

Equivalence of mass and energy

As Einstein (1905 ) [A 27] has derived from the principle of relativity, in fact, an inertial energy results in accordance with, or more specifically, that electromagnetic radiation can transmit inertia from one body to another. However, unlike Poincaré realized Einstein, that matter in the issue a mass loss of experiences - that is, the accumulated into the matter and a certain mass corresponding energy and the electromagnetic energy, according to each other are transferred, resulting in only the actual equivalence of mass and energy yields. Poincaré's radiation paradox can be solved by this equivalence comparatively easy. If it is assumed that the light source loses the emission according to mass, the contradiction is resolved without having to accept any balancing forces in the ether. [ B 20 ]

Like Poincaré, Einstein was able to show in 1906 that the theorem of the conservation movement and the center of gravity is valid also in electro- dynamic perspective, if the inertia of the ( electromagnetic ) energy is required. Again, he did not have to introduce as Poincaré fictitious masses, but just needed to show how the emission and absorption of energy leads to the transfer of inertia, so that no perpetual motion can occur. He referred to the work of Poincaré and reviewed their contents as formal largely consistent with his own text. Einstein wrote in the introduction: [A 28]

" Nevertheless, the purely formal considerations that need to be performed to demonstrate this assertion, are already included in the main, in a paper by H. Poincaré ², I will but for clarity 's sake do not rely on that work. "

Also can be solved by Einstein's approach the issue raised by Poincaré contradiction between the role of the mass conservation law and the reaction principle, since the mass conservation law is now a special case of conservation of energy.

General Theory of Relativity

After developed by Einstein general relativity theory (ART), which made ​​the gravity observations by Lorentz and Poincaré superfluous leads the inclusion of gravity in the principle of relativity to the fact that Lorentz transformations and the constancy of the speed of light are only locally defined and valid. Einstein himself said in a speech (1920), that in the context of ART, the space can not be conceived without gravitational potential and thus the room itself adhere physical qualities. Therefore, one could speak of a " gravitational ether" in the sense of " ether of the general theory of relativity ". He wrote: [A 29]

" The principle Novel of the ether of the general theory of relativity with respect to the Lorentz between ether is that the state of the former at any point is determined by legal relationships with the matter and the ether states in adjacent locations in the form of differential equations, while the state of Lorentz between ether in the absence of electromagnetic fields is conditioned by nothing but him and the same everywhere. The ether of the general theory of relativity is notionally formed in the Lorentz rule over that the room functions which describe it is replaced by constant, by disregarding his own condition conditional causes. So you can probably say that the ether of the general theory of relativity has emerged through relativization of the Lorentz between ether. "

Priority

There is some speculation that the special theory of relativity was the work of Poincaré and Lorentz, and not by Einstein. See article: History of special relativity

Recent Developments

New Lorentzianismus

Although the idea of a preferred reference system of the professional world is largely rejected, some " lorentzianische " or " re - lorentzianische " models (English: neo- Lorentzian relativity ) were according to Lorentz and Poincaré developed. These theories were mainly in the 1950s, among others represented by Herbert E. Ives and Geoffrey Builder and in the following decades by Simon Jacques Prokhovnik. [C 1] Consistent with the original Lorentz ether theory between a stationary ether was assumed wherein the speed of light is constant only for this relative, and consequently in moving inertial frames would have to be directional. If now postulated in addition to the directional dependence of the effect of length contraction, it follows the existence of time dilation. Therefore, it is (if not additional parameters of the theory to be changed ) is not possible to determine experimentally the anisotropy of the speed of light. Experiments, such as that of the eccentric physicist Stefan Marinov Bulgarian, which allegedly provided a confirmation of their directionality, were rejected by the art as useless [C 2].

Helmut Günther Also in 1996 developed a lorentzianisches model of a universal ether. [C 3] This is based on the fact that quasi- relativistic effects such as length contraction during plastic deformations and dislocations in crystal structures or even with pendant chains in the context of solitons were observed. This is because that these phenomena underlying Sine -Gordon equation Lorentz - invariant. [C 4 ] Other lorentzianische models are in Brandes et al. discussed. [C 5]

However, all these models are discussed in the professional world hardly further, as a theory in which the ether is virtually undetectable by a conspiracy of various effects, a rather low degree of probability is attached. [ B 21 ] [B 22] See also criticism # on the theory of relativity ether and absolute space.

Test theories of special relativity

Some test theory of special relativity, with which possible deviations should be evaluated by the Lorentz invariance that contain Lorentz ether theory as a limiting case. Precision measurements have so far fully confirmed the validity of the Lorentz invariance. [C 6]