Naturalistic observation
The observation is the purposeful, attentive perception of objects, phenomena or processes, optionally with the use of technical aids. In contrast to measurements observations aimed less at quantitative detection of the objects than on qualitative data.
Observations are made in almost all scientific and technical disciplines. The present article treats the areas of natural science, of empirical social research and as a basic method of empirical science (such as next to the experiment). Observations are the basis of empirical data. The scientific observation should be objective and repeatable.
The observation as a scientific method must be distinguished from the naive everyday observation: The everyday observation tends to be subjective and due to immediate needs of the observer. On the other hand tries scientific observation to be systematically and objectively. To achieve this system, we need a monitoring plan and an organization of the monitoring process, in particular those defining the
It is possible that observers should be trained intensively and prepare.
- 2.1 Monitoring requirements and examples
- 2.2 measurements
- 3.1 Structured and unstructured observation
- 3.2 Participating and non-participating observation
- 3.3 Overt and covert observation
- 3.4 mixed forms
- 3.5 Field observation and laboratory observation
- 4.1 Ethnology
- 4.2 sociology
- 4.3 Psychology
- 4.4 Observation as a research method 4.4.1 Types of observation
General observation
Theoretical foundations
The observation experiences a central attention in the philosophy of science. There is, however, there is no theoretical consensus. Back in 1887 was for sociology Ferdinand Tönnies and elaborated then assumed in the 1930s, the Vienna Circle for all empirical science assumes that empirical statements can be separated ( " protocol sentences ") and ( derived from axioms ) theory of sets. Log records therefore hold firmly observations, theoretical sentences then allow questions to findings and possibly refuted by them.
These assumptions have been rejected in the 1940s by Pierre Duhem so and Willard Van Orman Quine. According to them, there can be no theory- free observation type ( " Duhem - Quine thesis "). It has also spoken of a Unterdeterminierung the observational data or evidence. In the context of perception theory, this has an equivalent in the criticism, among others Wilfrid Sellars to a " myth of the given ". Thomas Samuel Kuhn radicalized such positions to the proposition that no complete theory rationalisierbarer border dispute over " purely empirical observation data " is possible. Science theories that then keep the objectivity of science is not only unattainable, but the striving for harmful judge observations for other specifications. For others, such as the Dutch philosopher of science Bas van Fraassen remains the " observability " a theory- independent concept whose boundaries are determined within the empirical sciences.
Distinguishing features of observations
Observation in science and technology
Observations tend to be associated here with measurements or counts, but can also be confined to the mere statement of phenomena - for example, in astronomy or geology. Some times indirect observations, such as when the phenomenon itself is no longer detectable, but has left its mark. In rare cases, assume the character of observations and the survey of random observers or phenomenological interpretation.
Observation requirements and examples
Important requirements are the reliable documentation and critical review of data on measurements and testing for consistency and local and temporal representativeness.
Typical examples of individual subject areas are
- Monitoring of physical and chemical phenomena in nature or in the laboratory
- Observation of celestial bodies and their radiation ( observational astronomy )
- Investigation of geological structures, their relationships, and changes
- Acquisition of plant and animal species with regard to distribution, behavior, etc.
- Observation of the behavior of technical components, equipment, or the stability of buildings
- Behavior of mathematical functions, models or computer programs.
Measurements
In contrast to pure observation - which mainly identify or classify phenomena - aiming measurements to quantitative statements about the observed object or process. The measured quantities are referred to a clearly defined unit of measurement ( absolute measurement) or a comparison ( relative measurement ).
The measurement result is considered reliable statement about an object when it is checked for accuracy and consistency. Most also include a statement about the size of possible measurement error is sought, which in principle are inevitable. Measurements in engineering and technical fields are accurately check on conceivable sources of systematic error in the measurement methods. Such analyzes include the evaluation of the measurements to and are often protected by methods of mathematical statistics. The most common quality message to a measurement, the standard deviation ( statistical mean error ).
Most scientific- technical measures are geometric or physical nature, such as
- Geometrical and time: measurement length ( in the most detail angle and distance measurement), their changes ( velocity measurement ), and several time measurements
- Physically: for example, temperatures (eg, surfaces, water and air temperature), radiation ( the type and thickness), electric voltage and current measurement or magnetic field and charge measurements.
- Other (specific ) Measuring methods are, inter alia, find in chemistry, particle physics, geography or photometry.
- Also counts may have the character of a measurement, for example the particle from outer space (cosmic radiation, solar wind, etc.) in the count of reflected photons or photochemical reactions.
Observation in social research
Observation is in addition to the survey and the content analysis is an important method of the social sciences. With their social behavior to be captured. Observation refers to methods of systematic tracking of social interaction with the aid of your own notes, protocols or medial records.
The observation is differentiated
- On the degree of structuration, as unstructured, semi-structured, fully structured,
- On the degree of naturalness of the observation situation in the field or laboratory,
- Whether participating or non- participating,
- Whether overtly or covertly.
Occasionally, two more dimensions of the observation are given.
- Object of observation, as self or external observation,
- Standing indirectly or through the media or directly in contact with the observed.
Structured and unstructured observation
- Unstructured observation: It sets only a broad framework and guidelines, and only a few categories of observation. This leaves some flexibility and openness of the observer for the object of observation.
- Structured observation: It is applied a fixed observation scheme. For this a feature or category system must be created.
Participating and non-participating observation
- Participant observation Active: The observer is in the group he observed even active. He has an "everyday " role in the social field. However, there is the danger of " going native ", ie the familiarity and identification with the observed events. Thus, the objectivity of observation is at risk and could lead to erroneous results that are no longer valid ( valid) are then.
- Passive: The observer is present, but has an insignificant role in the field, for example, a visitor.
Overt and covert observation
- Open observation: The observer who identifies as an observer subjects. A possible problem of the open observation is reactivity and the occurrence of social desirability.
- Covert observation: The observer is not recognizable as such. A covert observation method is the Mystery Shopping. The covert observation raises with particular emphasis on scientific ethics.
Mixed forms
There are highlight some mixed forms.
- Open non- participant observation: The observer is compared with its interaction partners to realize it, but does not participate in the situation ( video recording).
- Open participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation and makes himself known as an observer also in relation to its interaction partners.
- In the hidden non- participant observation: The observer attempts to remain unnoticed and not to intervene.
- Covert participant observation: The observer is compared with its interaction partners not as such be seen ( espionage method with an undercover agent or famous observations by Günter Wallraff ). The scientific ethical question is completely evident here; concealed participating observed the secret agent or the criminals who prepares a bank robbery.
Field observation and laboratory observation
- Field observation: the observation is carried out in a natural social situation. The field observation allows the long-term study of the effects of non-manipulable by the observer variables and as part of a complex social events.
- Observation in the laboratory: The observation is carried out in a situation artificially produced.
For each social sciences
Ethnology
Where the survey raises serious problems, such as when researchers and researched belong to different cultures, is to observe the royal road to exploration of social action and behavior
Sociology
This is also true for sociology when the research subject is a delicate one or researcher and researched are another strong foreign milieu. In sociology, the concept plays "observation" as different aggregated technical term in systems theory a role.
Psychology
In psychology specifically distinguished between external and self- observation. In case of external observation strange behaviors are observed in the self and self-observation (also introspection ) own behavior, their own feelings and thoughts can be observed.
Observation as a research method
In order to establish in science studies, analyzes and statistics and make later public can, a subject must first be examined. A research method that helps in retrieving empirical data, is observation.