Subject (grammar)

Subject referred to in linguistics, a grammatical function a phrase for the whole set. Typical characteristics of a subject such as the German are given for languages:

• It carries a special case, the nominative,
• The finite verb in the sentence should match the characteristics of the subject match ( congruence in person and number )
• And it is the hierarchically highest complement of the verb in the sentence (from which follow a number of other properties).

In the grammar school, the term " subject" is often equated with the term " record subject". In a narrower sense is " set subject" but a term that refers to the information structure of the sentence, and then has only a more or less significant correlation with the subject as a grammatical function. - Also associated with a subject as such is not directly specific meaning properties, even if it is often explained in non-scientific way of speaking of the concept of the subject so that it is " the doer of a situation " call. Although importance factors of this kind (namely, semantic roles, such as " agent" ) are in determining what is the subject of a verb, involved, however, the possible semantic roles of a subject are so varied that there is only a loose correlation here. - Overall, neither the property " set subject" nor an " agent" to be used as a basis for a definition of the subject.

The term subject refers, ultimately, the notion that the mentioned properties (like Nominativkasus, Kongruenzauslösung, hierarchically highest position and others) regularly and meet the same phrase. On a closer analysis, particularly in the language compared this context, as a rough trend with many exceptions dar. Thus, the term "subject" is replaced by fuzzy boundaries, and can be in particular various types of grammatical languages ​​do not apply in exactly the same way.

• 2.1 subject and agent
• 2.2 Subject and object sentence

• 3.1 Special types of subjects
• 3.2 The subject as the highest position in the hierarchy of verb complements
• 3.3 sentences without a subject 3.3.1 The impersonal passive

• 4.1 subjects that do not cause congruence
• 4.2 subjects are not in the nominative 4.2.1 dative / accusative subjects in Icelandic

Approaches to the determination of subjects

Schulgrammatik

In the tradition of the school grammar teaching which is the key task to be able to decompose sentences into parts of a sentence, and often the aim is to put grammar in context with visual, communication-related issues. This corresponds to the common approach to link the provision of case and grammatical functions to a test question. Thus, the nominative case is also referred to as the " Who - case " and the term subject clearly explained to the subject of the sentence is what "Who ( or what) " can be obtained with a question. The subject of a sentence is therefore the one supplement that can be "Who " is replaced by the question word (if a person is referred to ), as well as by a personal pronoun "he" or "she" could be replaced.

For the general definition of the term "subject", this test is equivalent to the statement that a subject is what is in the nominative case ( as it can be replaced with a question word, and the question word for its part, now has a unique nominative and the replacement by a question word here combines the detection of Nominativkasus with a Konstituententest ). For inanimate subjects, which could be obtained only with "what" can not be so easily distinguished between subject and object with the question test, which means a possible source of error in grammar teaching. In addition, the substitution test can be "who", not applied in many types of records that have a subject. So ( " the muse would Oh but fierce kiss me " eg ) may, at the determination of the subject in a question mark or exclamation sentence could usefully be introduced no further question word.

Grammatical case in the Germanic tradition

The Duden grammar (p. 613f. ) Lists the following identification of the subject. Subject is a complement of the verb, the

Examples: " The dog bit the mailman "

The Duden grammar also attempts no definition of the meaning, but offers only (p. 632f. ) Examples of possible substantive functions of the subject such as agent ( " someone who carries out an activity or action " ), or the " carrier of an operation or state " (" the leaves fall "," the child sleeps quietly "). Arise also a number of special cases, especially in the context of significant weak verbs like the copula function or passive verbs auxiliary verbs.

Linguistic Theories

In theories of formal linguistics "subject" isolated as an elementary concept of grammar is introduced, as in the LFG. In the generative grammar of Noam Chomsky in the wake of an attempt, however, to define the concept "subject" on a purely structural basis. Hereinafter, the essential aspect of a subject that appears to be a so-called specifier of the set according to the X-Bar Theory, that as the first phrase that is in the distribution of the set separated from the residue containing the title. The appearance of Nominativkasus and congruence is subordinated to this structural property by we are dealing with phenomena that are bound by these syntactic configuration. Both within the generative school (eg Haider 2006) and outside (eg in the Role and Reference Grammar ), however, doubts have been expressed as to whether such a purely structural definition of subjects can be maintained even for languages ​​with free word order. ( The question decides by whether variation can be derived by transformation from a fixed base structure in word order, and presents itself in different languages ​​is different ).

In linguistic typology is the question of whether a category "subject" can be found across languages ​​, a long-standing controversial issue. In a classic work schug before Edward Keenan (1976 ) that a term "subject " of the claimed validity over any cross-language, as a prototypically organized category was to be seen, so a category that can not be defined from the presence of specified criteria but the vorliege once from a set of possible features are enough features given in a particular case, to give an overall similarity with other members of the category ( without any single feature by itself is necessary). Keenan lists over 30 different properties that could thus contribute in varying ways for the determination of subjects.

Distinguish it from other concepts

Subject and agent

"Subject" as a grammatical function is to be distinguished from terms such as agent, undergoer, etc., where it is semantic roles, ie properties that participants have in the situation denoted by the verb. However, these are quite used to predict the choice of the subject for a particular verb. Classically, an attempt is made to set up a hierarchy of possible participant roles, which is sorted by " Subjektwürdigkeit " and covers all types of verb meanings. From this hierarchy of semantic roles are then obtained rules for mapping to the subject position, for example: that in each case the highest role that is assigned by a particular verb, occupies the subject position. Because at the top of Subjektwürdigkeit the role of " agent" is ( consciously acting cause a situation ), it follows that an agent, if any, in each case subject must be - and in this respect represents a " typical " subject. The term "subject" is, however, independent needs, just because well as various other participant roles can be mapped to the subject position, if they are always the highest (or only) participant role that is available at a particular verb. Due to the wide variety of verb meanings and participant roles, hence arise many cases of verbs, not referred to the subject in the active " doer of a situation ":

• The tailgate was accidentally open.
• The guitar fell out.
• The guitar got scratches.
• The guitar has since disappeared.

( Note also that the action of the " oversight " is not being ascribed to the subject in the first sentence, but a responsible person, who shall remain unnamed in the sentence because the verb " remain open " the corresponding subscriber role does not forgive ).

While subjects in the active by themselves already have multiple roles, is produced by the passive additional variation by the argument here is subject, as a rule, that would be imaged in the active to the position of the direct object. This is made possible because the intended meaning of the verb of the higher-order argument is suppressed by the passive form (often, but not always an agent ). The suppressed argument of a passive sentence is then sometimes referred to as " logical subject " because the passive voice does not change the meaning of the verb and the suppressed argument is still implicitly connoted by the verb. ( But it is just not a subject of the passive sentence, and not a logical property, but a semantic ).

Subject and object sentence

Another category that is separate from the actual concept of the subject, is what is called in modern linguistic literature Topik, traditionally set subject or " psychological subject ". It " represents the idea (...) that exist in the mind of the speaker is first ", as they say in a classic formulation of Hermann Paul ( 1919). The subsequent rest of the sentence is then set statement that makes a " comment " on this unit serves as a starting point and usually it provides new information. The subdivision, at issue here is thus essentially the. Between known information, to which is connected with a statement, and new information Known information in such capacity, the junction ( ie a Topik ) stands typically at the beginning of a sentence. As in many languages ​​, the subject stands for grammatical reasons, the beginning of a sentence, a correlation between subject status and function results as Topik. However, especially in German, this relationship is weak because the German word order has so much freedom that each phrase can be brought to the beginning of a sentence. For example, in the following sentence the object this function:

• This text you can not read without glasses.

In languages ​​with more rigid word order such as English, the relationship can, however, be closely: In English, a passive construction is often chosen in order to provide an underlying object to the beginning of a sentence can, where it can easily serve as Topik.

• This text can not be read without glasses.

The function of the set of the object ( in this narrow sense) that is correlated more or less with the status as a subject, but can not serve as a definition of the category subject.

The subject is in the structure of the sentence

Special types of subjects

The simplest cases of subjects are independently occurring nouns (eg, proper names), pronouns or noun groups (ie, nouns with depending on them, attributes):

• Otto listens.
• Ottos Mops continued hops.

In addition to nominal units even whole sentences may occur in the function of a subject ( just as they may be objects of a verb ), eg subordinate clauses with the conjunctions " that" or "if" are introduced, with question or relative ( " who, what ...") initiated subordinate clauses, infinitive, including:

• Whether Ottos Mops will return is uncertain.
• Anyone who smokes dies earlier.
• Words with the sound "o" to string together, gives me pleasure.

These can be just as nominal groups are replaced by a pronoun or an interrogative. However, in contrast to the latter movements bear no features for person and number, which affects the matching rules ( see below).

Some verbs require a subject a meaningless empty pronoun "it", which seems to bear no well identified semantic role and can not be replaced by a question word:

• Time it rains, it snows again

This use of "it" is often called " Expletivpronomen " ( Füllpronomen ) designated, in so far as it seems to be empty of content. But it is a subject that is required by the respective verb so, and occurs in all types of construction with this verb. This type is to be distinguished from such Expletivpronomen that are verbunabhängig and the subject position or a different position of the sentence vacated if this would otherwise left empty by a particular syntactic construction. (See below in the section " sentences without a subject " )

The subject as the highest position in the hierarchy of verb complements

Subject and object are not available as supplements of the verb on the same level. This is demonstrated by the so-called Konstituententests, such as the displacement sample. What can be changed as a whole in the set form a coherent phrase ( constituent ), so could ( infinites ) form verb and object, such a unit, but not to the exclusion of subject and verb of the object:

• I have read the article not yet.
• NOT: I have not yet read the article.

Another property that points to a higher place in the hierarchy, is the fact that reflexive pronouns such as " itself" may depend on the subject in object position, but never can be bound as a subject to an object a reflexive:

• The monkey saw herself in the mirror
• NOT: Explore recognized the monkey in the mirror.

This effect can not be alone at the order of the words (such that the reflexive should always follow the reference word ) because it can not be remedied by simple conversion of the sentence parts. Likewise, it may not only be because a nominative form of the reflexive pronoun does not exist, because it is possible that reflexives can appear as a subject in another case. For example, after a common analysis of the reflexive "himself " in the following English example of a subject Infinitivsatzes:

• John had never expected [ the pope himself to visit ]

But still, the reflexive pronoun can not be bound to the object of the same sentence ( because the sentence can never mean: " John had never expected that the Pope would visit on your own "); it can only be bound by a higher subject ( " John "). This effect thus shows that subjects represent the highest and most prominent complement of a verb.

Sentences without a subject

In many cases, the subject is described as the central and most important part of the sentence that is always together with the predicate of the sentence constituting the core, whereas a direct object is less central because it would not always appear. However, precisely the grammar of the German thereof allowed many exceptions. The German has a number of verbs or constructions, which sets up completely without a subject.

• "I'm freezing. I would now very much of a thick sweater. "
• "Now is begun. "
• "He is not going to help. "
• "From the cake is still there. "

Verbs of the type " I'm freezing " here represent exceptions to the above-mentioned principle, that after a single argument, the subject position must be occupied always first. It is in German not to subjects in the accusative, though there is this kind in other languages ​​(so-called "quirky subjects", which are further discussed below).

The impersonal passive

Apart from certain individual verbs that are subjectless constructed (such as " I'm freezing " ), there is a mechanism that systematically ensures the German for subjectless sentences, namely the impersonal passive. It arises from the fact that the German intransitive verbs can be put into passive voice, which has the consequence that after eradication of the underlying agent could move up as no other part of the sentence as a subject. Contrary to widespread belief (which is also found in some textbooks on German grammar) is in German on the subject position then no Expletivpronomen ( Füllpronomen ), that is, the "it" in the following sentence does not represent the site of a subject:

• It has worked diligently.

This "it" is rather a Expletiv that occupies the apron in a Verbzweitsatz; it serves the word order of German declarative sentence to maintain, even if you want to emphasize any unit in that they prefixing. The distinguishing feature of this apron Expletivs is that it disappears as soon as any other part of the sentence is preceded and that it can not appear in a subordinate clause (which is introduced by a conjunction):

• It was working all the time eagerly
• For all time worked zealously. / And all the time was working diligently, etc.
• NOT: * The whole time we were working diligently.
• NOT: * ... because it was worked diligently.

However, the comparisons required by the verb real subject "it" eg weather verbs, which can be also set in the interior:

• Is it raining still? / ... Because it 's still raining.

Just as with subjectless sentences the apron - can "it" be with subject containing sentences, the subject is then behind the verb The following example is clearly "everyone" or " all " is the subject, because it determines the congruence with the verb form:

• It has each get an equal share.
• It all got the same share

A minimal contrast to the Germans found in the Netherlands: You can actually in the impersonal passive enter a Expletivpronomen, which occupies the position of the subject. This pronouns in Dutch, " he, " is from the verb does not require as such, but from the impersonal construction in which it is set: Elk uur he dat gewerkt kon been, he 'll ook effectief gewerkt Every hour - to work can be - even actually worked. Just such a subject expletives can not be set in English.

Exceptions to the classic criteria for subjects

As for the definition of the category subject several criteria were used, there are cases where individual criteria are not met, but so many other subject characteristics are given that each player has to talk about subjects that are in fact less typical manifestations.

Subjects that do not cause congruence

Although sentences may have the function of a subject without a doubt, the verb is congruent with them not in the same way as with nouns as subject; that is, the Kongruenzform is always set to the 3rd person singular, because this is the unmarked form, but playing characteristics of the subject set does not matter. Compare the examples:

• The rejection of Anna and the excuse of Fritz annoy me.
• The fact that Anna does not come and that Fritz is so excused, annoys me. (not: annoy me )

Subjects who are not in the nominative

Two types of cases are possible: First, a subject can belong to a category that can not be labeled with a case. This case are the aforementioned clauses in subject position dar. to come second in certain constructions subjects in the other case before, although this possibility might not exist in German. The best known example is probably the AcI ( accusativus cum infinitivo ). However, the examples of the German of this form are not clear:

• I saw him leave the house

By importance, the pronoun should be " him ", " leave " a complement of the verb, a paraphrase would be

• I saw [ as he left the house ]

The question is whether this is also syntactically so, or can be understood if the accusative pronoun " him " "see" in German as a syntactic object. In Latin, there are cases which are clear:

• Oportet eum venire

Belongs - to - him to come. = "It is himself that he is coming. "

The verb " oportet " ( it should be ) is not a transitive verb and an accusative in this set can not be an object. Rather, the accusative " eum " must ( him ) " venire " as the subject of the infinitive ( to come ) to be construed. This is a case where not omitted the subject in the infinitive (which is specified for the German as a criterion for subjectivity ), but where only the nominative is not available.

Dative / accusative subjects in Icelandic

In Iceland, there are designs that look superficially similar to German impersonal verbs of the type " I'm freezing ". Unlike the Germans, however, such an accusative or dative forms are there grammatical characteristics of subjects (even if they never check the Kongruenzform of the verb ). So they can bind reflexive about: Hana vantar peningana you sina ( accusative ) missing money ( accusative ) her ( reflexive ) "She needs money " ( Literally about: "You is absent 's money " )

Furthermore, dative subjects, as in the verb " Leida " can ( bored ) in the infinitive omitted, which, as already explained, in German only nominatives can: Stelpunum leiddist í skólanum The Girl ( dative ) bored in school " The girls bored in school "

Stelpurnar vonast til að [- ] ekki í leiðast skólanum The Girl ( nominative ) hope for the [- ] do not get bored in school " The girls hope not to get bored in school "

, Are also possible set of terminals, where a member of a sentence, which is the first phrase in the nominative, is omitted in the second part of the sentence, although at this point a dative is used (since this nominative and the expected dative are treated as parallel, it is shown that the dating is like the nominative used as the subject ):

Stelpurnar foru í skólann s theim leiddist Thar. The Girl ( Nom ) went to school but them ( dative ) bored there or: Stelpurnar foru í skólann s [- ] leiddist Thar. The Girl ( Nom ) went to school but [- ] bored there " The girls went to school, but [they] were bored there."

Such designs are in the German impossible to compare the following sentences, in which an attempt is made, the form " him dreaded " just to use:

• He touched the corpse without [- ] to gray before.
• He touched the corpse but [- ] not dreaded.

Subjects that are not hierarchically highest complement of the verb

The word order freedom inside the German sentence can be explained as a combination of two issues after a major in German linguistics analysis: Firstly, different sequences of different verbs would in principle be required in which appear the case at its amendments; on the other hand there are also conversion rules ( the so-called " scrambling " ) that are based on the different basic sequences. Such a conversion recognize by the fact that in the interpretation of contrast effects emerge, even if the intonation is not changed. The emphasis should always be in all the following examples on the word immediately before the verb, the normal rate of the German accent is ( here by capitalization marked). The idea of ​​the following tests is therefore that this accent in front of the verb as the neutral sentence stress can not be interpreted, if not longer present, the neutral word order:

Because ... parishes helped refugees ( nominative < dative: neutral = basic word order ) ... because refugees parishes helped ( dative < nominative: only contrastive possible)

In the second movement " churches " must be interpreted contrastively ( parishes, in contrast to other people ), whereas in the first sentence, no such effect occurs, here is a neutral statement that fits in any context, and in response to the question "What is it all about? " can serve. It is concluded that the first variant shows the basic word order. As expected, the nominative is hierarchically higher than the dative.

According to this criterion implies that the nominative complement of some verbs in German hierarchically lower position than the accompanying dative or accusative because it is the neutral sequence, and the otherwise normal order " nominative before dative / accusative " leads in these verbs to contrast effects. Compare the example of the verb " like ", which also has the nominative and dative additions, " help " with the verb:

Formulas ... because mathematicians like ( nominative < dative: contrastive, " mathematicians as opposed to other people " ) ... because mathematicians like formulas ( dative < nominative: neutral )

Mathematicians interested ... because formulas ( nominative < accusative: contrastive ) ... because mathematicians interested in formulas ( accusative < nominative: neutral ( = basic word order ) )

Similarly, it can be observed that in German passive sentences, the passive subject can maintain the lower hierarchical position of the direct object to which it corresponds, mutatis mutandis:

Children fairy tale ... that you told ... that children fairy tales to be told. (neutral: Basic word order ) ... that fairy tales children are told. ( "Children" only contrastive interpretable )

In all examples, it is still at the lower hierarchical standing nominatives in the sense of entities that they control the congruence with the verb ( cf. above: tells congruent with the singular subject "man", the predicate " to be told " congruent with the plural subject " fairy tale" ).