Tibeto-Burman languages

The Tibeto-Burman languages ​​constitute one of the two main branches of Sino-Tibetan language family, the other being the Sinitic. The approximately 330 Tibeto-Burman languages ​​in southern China, the Himalaya region and southeast Asia spoken by a total of nearly 70 million people. ( In contrast, possess the eight Chinese languages ​​together 1.2 billion speakers. )

By far the most speaker- Tibeto-Burman language is Burmese with about 35 million native speakers and another 15 million secondary speakers in Burma.

• 3.1 syllable structure and phoneme
• 3.2 derivational
• 3.3 Common Vocabulary

Main languages

The following Tibeto-Burman languages ​​have at least one million speakers:

• Burmese language ( Burmese ): 35 million speakers; second with 50 million speakers / Myanmar ( Burma)
• Yi ( Yipho ): 4.2 million / South China
• Tibetan: 2 million; with Amdo and Kham - Tibetan - 4.5m / Central and Western Tibet; Amdo, Kham
• SGaw ( Sgo ): 2 million / Burma: Karen State
• Rakhain ( Arakanesisch ): 2 million / Burma: Arakan
• Kham ( Kham - Tibetan): 1.5 million / Tibet: Kham
• Meithei ( Manipuri ): 1.3 million / India: Manipur, Assam, Nagaland
• Pwo ( Pho ): 1.3 million / Burma: Karen State
• Tamang: 1 million / Nepal: Kathmandu Valley
• Yangbye: 1 million / Burma
• Bai ( Minchia ): 1 million / China: Yunnan

The article contains the appendix contains a table with all the Tibeto-Burman languages ​​that have at least 500,000 speakers. The given weblink contains all the Tibeto-Burman languages ​​with classification and number of speakers.

Classification

Level of classification

The internal classification of Tibeto-Burman languages ​​about 330 can not be taken for granted today. Although the research has been able to agree on a number of smaller genetic units - including Tibetan, Kiranti, Tani, Bodo - Koch, Karenisch, Jingpho - Sak, Kuki -Chin and Burmese - but could the question of medium and larger subgroups that these summarized smaller units, are not yet clear consensus. The reasons are a lack of detailed research, grammars and dictionaries in many Tibeto-Burman languages ​​single, intense reciprocal areal influences that obscure the genetic correlations, and the large number of languages ​​to be compared.

While Matisoff 2003, the summary fairly large units " dares " tends van Driem 2001 to the other extreme: he divided the Tibeto-Burman into many small sub-groups, making only vague information about broader relationships. A middle way is Thurgood 2003 The representation of this Article based -. What the intermediate units in terms - especially on Thurgood, for the detailed outline on the extensive work of van Driem 2001, which all now familiar Tibeto-Burman languages ​​and their immediate family relationships to be treated. Overall, a relatively small-scale structure of the Tibeto-Burman in genetically -backed devices.

Internal structure

On the basis of the listed current research situation, a following internal structure of the Tibeto-Burman reasons, though not yet have all the subunits of a complete consensus was reached:

Internal structure of the Tibeto-Burman

• Tibetobirmanisch Bodisch with Tibetan, Tamang Ghale, Tshangla, Takpa, Dhimal -Toto
• Westhimalayisch
• Mahakiranti with Kiranti, Newari Thangmi, Magar - Chepang
• North Assam with Tani ( Abor - Miri - Dafla ) Khowa - indstry education, Mijuisch ( Deng), Idu - Digaru
• Hrusisch
• Bodo - Konyak - Jingpho with Bodo - Koch ( Barisch ), Konyak (North- Naga ), Jingpho - Sak ( Kachin Luisch )
• Kuki - Chin- Mizo - Kuki - Naga Chin, Ao, Angami - Pochuri, Zeme, Tangkhul, Meithei ( Manipuri ), Karbi ( Mikir )
• Qiang Qiang Gyalrong with Xixia and Gyalrong
• Nungisch
• Karenisch
• Lolo - Burmese with Lolo ( Yipho ) and Burmese
• Individual languages ​​: Pyu †, † Dura, Koro, Lepcha, Mru, Naxi, Tujia, Bai

Statistical and geographical data

The following table provides a statistical and geographical overview of the subunits of the Tibeto-Burman. The data are based on the below web link " classification of Sino-Tibetan languages ​​". The number of languages ​​is significantly lower than in Ethnologue, there Ethnologue - explains many dialects into independent languages ​​- contrary to the majority opinion research. The data used here (number of languages ​​, number of speakers ) are based primarily on the detailed representation in van Driem 2001.

The subunits of the Tibeto-Burman with number of languages ​​and speakers and their main areas of distribution

The primary branches of the Tibeto-Burman are printed, semi-bold, behind each of which follows the subunits.

The article Sino Tibetan languages ​​contains a detailed discussion of the validity of the presented here and other measures proposed by the research units of the Tibeto-Burman.

Linguistic characteristics of the Tibeto-Burman

The Tibeto-Burman forms a genetic unit within the Sino Tibetan. The Tibeto-Burman proto- forms could be reconstructed on a large scale ( Matisoff 2003). The common lexical material is very extensive and is by researching other languages ​​increasingly reliable (see the table of word equations). In addition to the lexical material there is plenty of phonological and grammatical similarities that will underpin the genetic unity of the Tibeto-Burman.

Syllable structure and phoneme

The Proto - Tibeto-Burman was - as the Proto - Sino Tibetan - a consistently monosyllabic language. His syllable structure can be described as

Reconstructing ( potential slots are indicated by (.)). The first two consonants are initially meaningless relevant " prefixes ", the real root has the form K (G ) V ( K), the Schlusskonsonant needs of the group / p, t, k, s, m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j / originate -final vowel is rare. The vowel can be short or long, the length is phonemic. Can a weak vowel / ə Between the Präfixkonsonanten and the Initialkonsonant / are ( a so-called schwa ). This original syllable structure in the classical Tibetan and some modern western Tibetan languages ​​and occupied in Gyalrong (which are therefore especially important for the reconstruction), less complete in Jingpho and Mizo. The complex initial clusters have been reduced in many languages. This structure simplification obviously led often develop differentiating sounds.

After Benedict in 1972 and Matisoff, 2003, the consonant inventory of Proto - Tibeto-Burman - which was mainly used for the initial consonant of the root to the full extent - for the following phonemes:

As Initialkonsonant the root word these phonemes found in each group following regular speaker bulges:

The alternative correspondences are usually secondary to aspiration can occur under certain conditions, it is not phonemic. Based on the above table is Benedict in 1972, where listed for this sound correspondences appropriate word equations.

The Tibeto-Burman vowel system was as / a, o, u, i, e / reconstructed. Vowels can be used in the proto-language in the syllable center and Silbenauslaut appear, not at the beginning of a syllable. However, other vowels as / a / in the proto-language Silbenauslaut very rare to find. In contrast, endings / Vw / and / PY / very frequently.

Derivational

A classic relational morphology (ie a systematic morphological change of nouns and verbs with categories such as case, number, tense, aspect, person, diathesis, etc.) there has not been unanimous opinion of the research in the proto-language. The observable today in the Tibeto-Burman languages ​​relational morphology of nouns and verbs is to be regarded as an innovation, which is due to areal influence of neighboring languages ​​or to the effect of substrates. As a result of very different influences very different morphological types could emerge.

But certainly can be a derivational elements for the Proto- Tibeto-Burman reconstruct their reflections can be detected in many Tibeto-Burman languages. It is consonantal prefixes and suffixes and Anlautalternationen, but modify the meaning of verbs and nouns. The existence of common derivational and Anlautalternationen with identical or similar semantic effect in almost all groups of the Tibeto-Burman is a strong indication of its genetic unit.

S- prefix

The s- prefix has a causative and denominative function, which was originally a more general " directive " is meaning based. Examples:

• Klass. Tibetan grib "shadow", sgrib " shade, darken " ( denominative )
• Klass. Tibetan gril " role ", " curl " sgril - ( denominative )
• Klass. Tibetan RIN " be long ", " extend " SRIN - ( causative )
• Jingpho lot " be free " slot " blank " ( causative )
• Jingpho dam " get lost ", sɘdam " mislead " ( causative )
• Lepcha nak " just be ", njak < * snak " just do " ( causative, metathesis sK > Kj )

In other Tibeto-Burman languages ​​(such as Burmese, Lahu, Lolo languages) got lost s- prefix, but causes changes in the initial consonant or tonal differentiations. For weak initial consonants but still an s- prefix may also be recognizable in these languages, for example

• Burmese ʔip " sleep," sip " euthanize "
• Burmese WAN " enter " Swan " bring in "

Anlautalternierung

In almost all Tibeto-Burman languages, there are pairs of semantically related words that are phonetically differ only in that the Anlautkonsonant is unvoiced or voiced. The voiceless variant is then usually a transitive, voiced an intransitive meaning. There is a theory that the Anlautveränderung by an original * h - prefix - had been effected ( Pulleyblank 2000) - a non- syllabic, pharyngeal glide.

This contrast, however, there is not in Tibetan. Both intransitive and transitive verb roots can as a voiced or an unvoiced have initial sound, occasionally there are also old voiceless - voiced intransitive pairs, eg both input and ḥkheng, khengs " fully be, see fill ". The transitive counterpart is either ḥgengs, bkang, dgang, khengs ( for output) or skong, bskangs, bskang, skongs ( to ' kheng, khengs ).

Examples:

• Bahing kuk " bow ", " to be bent " guk
• Bodo Phen " just do ", Ben " just be "

N suffix

The n suffix (also in the variant / - m /, often in Tibetan and / d / ) is primarily a nominalisierende, sometimes a collective and function. Examples:

• Klass. Tibetan rgyu " s move ", rgyun " connection, series, persistence, power "
• Klass. Tibetan gci " urinate ", gcin " urine "
• Klass. Tibetan rku "steal" (supported by the ending- ma nominalization ) rkun - ma " thief, theft ,"
• Klass. Tibetan nye " (to be) close " gnyen "relative"
• Lepcha zo "eat", AZoM " food" ( nominalization supported by anlautendes / a / )
• Lepcha bu " bear " abun "vehicle"
• Proto - Tibetobirmanisch * rmi "person", * rmin "people" ( collectivizing )

S suffix

Also the s- suffix had in Tibetan several features that are no longer productive but

1 resultativ or past -forming at Adjektivalen and verbs

E.g. che " are great," Che " grew up to be "

2 as a collective images (similar to the German Ge in mountains) preserved, especially still in compound words to the ancient Tibetan

E.g. rnam " unit, part " > rnams as plural morpheme, sku " ( höfl. ) body, person ' srung " protect " > skusrungs " ( the collective ) bodyguard " a special military unit

More derivational

In addition to the above, there are other for the Tibeto-Burman derivational postulated, for example, / t /, / j / and / k /. None of these suffixes, however, a satisfactory functional description does not at present specify that would be valid at least in some units of the Sino Tibetan. For more details, please refer to LaPolla ( in Thurgood 2003) and Matisoff 2003.

Common Vocabulary

The following word equations show very clearly the genetic relationship of the Tibeto-Burman languages. They are based on Peiros - Starostin 1996, Matisoff 2003 and the given below online database Starostins. For the word selection, the list of " stable etymologies " of Dolgopolsky and some words from the Swadesh list is based on, which loanwords and onomatopoeia are largely excluded. Each word equation has representatives from up to five languages ​​or language units: Classical Tibetan, Burmese Classic, Jingpho ( Kachin ), Mizo ( Lushai ), Lepcha, Proto - Kiranti (reconstruction Starostin ) and Proto - Tibetobirmanisch ( Matisoff 2003). The transcription is also carried out by Matisoff and the underlying database.

Tibeto-Burman word equations

Languages ​​with at least 500,000 speakers

The following table contains all the Tibeto-Burman languages ​​with at least 500,000 speakers. Indicated are the numbers of speakers, the classification and geographical distribution of these languages. These data are based on the web link given below.

The Tibeto-Burman languages ​​with at least 500,000 speakers