Tribe
Tribe, short stem called, colloquially, a less complex form of social organization whose members are held together by the understanding of a common ancestry, and by reciprocal relationships. This idea of a tribe questioned the political science and anthropology to the middle of the 20th century compared to the postulated as superior order structure of the state. Neither in terms of an evolutionary development from one to the other, yet at the same time as a parallel to the state existing global phenomenon of tribal term is discussed nowadays seriously. As a general socio-political category, the name is root rejected as prejudiced, judgmental and analytical focus. In contrast, in anthropology has a definition of strain, based on the self-identification as well as the cultural, religious and ethnic identity of the social group, still important.
Conceptual history
The term "tribe" as an organized association within a nation immersed in a prominent place on at the twelve tribes of Israel in the second book of Moses. The parent unit of the "people " here is limited in the sense of historical myth used as a tribal group with a common origin for all members. By the Israelite tribes out formed a common language and culture within a closed settlement area, they developed their own, to delimiting outward sense of community. Here moors the idea of the progenitor. Ethnogenesis refers to the later historical process by which a group of people from other separates and comes together into a nation.
Linguistically and pictorially the "descent " with the tree trunk is connected, which has grown from a particular origin to its branches. The dual meaning also includes the Latin stirps which designates both Botanical " root " or " root " and " descendant of a family ." "Tribe" was formed in the corresponding meaning to the Middle High German originate from the Old High German liutstam. English and French tribu tribe include the syllable tri, "three", the Latin term tribus, with a division of the Roman population was meant in three departments. Even the English tribe originally referred directly to the Israelite tribes. The idea of the twelve tribes of Israel went directly into the travelogues of the 17th and 18th century and the term strain was used as a classification of the peoples in the visited foreign countries. The evolutionary approach was the one under the strong influence of the conclusions drawn from the Bible knowledge, on the other Greek and Roman authors formed a fixed point. They described the overall structure of their own society, they demarcated against the marginal barbarians.
The post-Roman Germanic populations in Central Europe as Alemanni and Lombards are referred to as tribes because of their low degree of state organization. In the Middle Ages there were in Germany on the road to nation-building, among other tribal boundaries between the Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Franks, Swabians and Bavarians.
During the 19th century it was " root " for the contemporary societies the general importance of a simple and originally organized subgroup of a preferably non-European society. Accordingly, a dictionary entry from 1965 Pedigree defined as "a passing particularly among primitive peoples in the foreground ethnic unity, bringing people together includes the same language and the same culture an autonomous territorial association. " That word relationship does not occur in this text.
Ancient society
Fundamental to the anthropological theory in the 19th century was the study of Greek and Roman antiquity. In ancient Greece, the tribe ( nation, people ) was an organizational subunit of the state. Genos ( Pl genes) described a kinship group. The phratry formed a larger unit, which referred to a mythical ancestors. A social classification includes Genos (gender, family group), phratry, trittys as a subdivision of the tribe and ethnos ( people ). The genes were endogamous, marrying community therefore did not include the entire tribe. Originally, the structure in Gene was probably limited to the aristocracy. This structure was also the basis of military organization. In the Iliad (2, 101) Nestor recommends: " Arrange the men by tribes and by phratries that the phratry phratry beistehe and the tribe the tribe " In Attica there were four strains of three phratries and thirty GENE These strains. . derived their ancestry to one eponymous hero back, but are artificially created political and administrative units. In the Athenian Council of 400 sent each strain 100 members. Anyone who was not a member of a tribe, therefore, had no political rights. since the reform of Cleisthenes played the master no longer matters in the political organization, he shared Attica in municipal districts ( demes ), which henceforth formed the basic political unit. Ten of these demes were combined into a strain but now defined over the place of residence and not on the actual or perceived ancestry had. strain chose the Phylarch ( tribal leaders ), Strategos and taxi Archos ( Brigadier ), provided five warships for the fleet and elected 50 members to the council. These tribes were given a eponymous hero allocated for whose cult they were responsible.
In Rome were also gentes ( singular gens ) to a tribe ( tribus ) together. According to legend, Rome was founded by a Latin, a Sabellian and a "mixed " root, all of which each consisted of a hundred gentes. Every ten gentes formed a curia (Pl. curiae ), which is often equated with the Greek phratry. , The Senate was composed of the heads of these 300 gentes in the reform of Servius Tullius new gentes were formed, .. , it becomes clear that it was political units, but they were still based on kinship relations, in both cases, Cleisthenes ' Phylenreform and the Curia Education was transformed by reorganizing the tribal society into a state structure.
Evolutionism
In the second half of the 19th century, some early standard works of the anthropological literature, including in 1861 by Johann Jakob Bachofen Mother Right and 1877 by Lewis Henry Morgan Ancient Society ( primitive society ) published. The authors represented an evolutionist model for which they searched for the origins of the company. Although they came to their conclusions quite different results on the original forms of society, they saw all but the top of the social organization in the family. From this nucleus the broader structures were developed for the description she wore borrowed terms on the so-called primitive peoples from the ancient society. Regardless of whether an easily recognizable patrilineal or derivable only from inferences matrilineal descent sequence was found critical was the assumption that a common unilinear descent formed the basis of social organization.
The Latin word gens designated yet in Theodor Mommsen ( History of Rome, 1854-56 ) after the Roman family law a consanguineous family, whose rectilinear descent sequence should lead to unique legal relationship. The gentes were in this sense, the basis for the definition of tribe. Only later it became clear that were passed in the Roman gentes often constructed traditions that gave the model of a society in total. For Henry Sumner Maine ( Ancient Law, 1861) and others which emerged from kinship social structure did not necessarily based on biological reproduction. He also recognized quasi- fictional relationships that are based only on a common historical myth. The original state prior to the introduction of state regulations believed the authors observed in the indigenous peoples and to transmit the ancient vocabulary on this.
The development of evolutionary descent model coincided with European colonialism. In the territories placed under its rule, the colonial masters used in many places, the method of indirect rule. Existing power structures have been exploited to entrust tribal elders and local leaders with administrative tasks. Some contact colonial officials received a previously unknown abundance of power as soon as they acted within the meaning of the central administration. The original cultural unity of the tribe has now cemented as a form of political organization within the newly created colonial state structures.
Expenses incurred during the mid-20th century theories of the multi-linear evolution extend the notions of unilinear evolution, by accepting economic and environmental influences as the culture shaping factors. A crucial influence of the environment for the development of society raised Julian Steward (1902-1972) produced in its Cultural Ecology ( Ecology Culture ). Meanwhile, students Elman Service ( Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective, 1962) the evolution classified according to the old scheme, but with new arguments, according to their political organization degree in the four stages: band society ( without domination, few small groups organized in clan size) strain ( formalized management structures, regular meetings Oldest ) chiefdom ( shaped by kinship hierarchical society ) and state ( centralized, hierarchical, highly organized ).
Functionalism
The descent as the basis for the formation of a society remained as an anthropological idea, even if the evolutionist theories soon criticized and they were in the British functionalist anthropology replaced by a model of concurrent systems. The functionalists rejected the previous psychological interpretations and tried instead to derive from individual observations general laws. Were among their representatives Bronisław Malinowski ( Argonauts of the Western Pacific, 1922), Alfred Radcliffe - Brown ( Andaman Islanders, 1922) and Edward E. Evans -Pritchard. The latter compared to the co-authored with Meyer Fortes introduction of social anthropological classic African Political Systems ( 1940), two in Africa foregone, different social categories with each other. Their basic assumption was no longer the historical sequence, but the simultaneous existence of organized and centralized segmentary, founded on a system of kinship societies. Evans -Pritchard showed the integrative power of tribal units ( lineages ) who knew no superior political power structure in the Sudanese Nuer and the Azande; parallel researched his colleague Godfrey Lienhardt at the Dinka. The strain was not taken as a kinship group and no uniform definition as a social entity which carries sovereign over a particular area power. For Evans-Pritchard of the group cohesion of the pastoralists, especially in the economic necessity was due to have to assert themselves in the struggle for grazing lands to other groups, Lienhardt emphasized the active power of rituals in these conflicts over natural resources. Both described the political role of the tribe as a fighting community that demands solidarity of its members.
Primordialismus
The theory of Primordialismus ( " of the first order here" ) provides the individual through certain " imprints " from time eternal immutable associated with a group. Regardless of the spatial and temporal environment should be visible from outside the imaginary as static, ethnicity of the individual to a group in the consideration. The connecting elements include kinship, biological characteristics, as well as a common language and history. Based on these objectively defined criteria, which are considered as quasi-natural been made, the ethnic association. One of the main representatives of the strict sociobiological direction of Primordialismus include Pierre L. van de Berghe ( born 1933 ) and Richard Dawkins ( b. 1941 ) who imply the ethnic groups a biological- genetic origin.
The original cultural and historical starting point of ethnicity also represents the American cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz, who in the Moroccan town of Sefrou operational field research in the 1960s and 1970s. At the same time also his opponent Ernest Gellner developed in Morocco a model of a segmentary tribal organization. The formative importance of unilinear descent ( the origin of a lineage ) measured Gellner little importance, his theory is its own development developed by Evans -Pritchard in the black African Nuer concept of segmentation. Limiting factor is pointed out that the ideology of the tribe concluded no objective criterion, but only an artificial, conjured by the tribal members themselves model that corresponds to the actual relationships adequately.
Term review
A fundamental criticism of the tribal term referring to the fuzzy definition and lack of differentiation from people, clan or tribe. Morton Fried recounted his first investigation of a Chinese society ( Fabric of Chinese Society. A Study of the Social Life of a Chinese County Seat, 1967) in The Notion of Tribe ( 1975), the previous term use as a language group, kinship group, cultural, economic or political unit. He retired as the most far-reaching critics to conclude that the tribal definitions simple constructions of anthropologists for lying below state organizations are secondary social phenomena. In addition, there was the tribe as a romantic, myths lossy idea of the noble savage. Fried presented the tribal term in the socio-political discourse as merely useless, but without being able to offer an alternative.
From the mid- 1960s, the juxtaposition of traditional tribe and the modern state came generally into disrepute, the tribe has been declared as an anthropological term for mostly useless and ideologically fraught. Occasionally filled another term (such as " tribal society" ) to describe the same facts the gap. In particular, the sympathetic view of trunk as an original form of society was rejected, because in it the evolutionary view of history was still handed down.
For social science critique of the notion of use in the colonial context was. Particularly in Africa through the installation of local tribal leader units have been created that did not exist before. Traditionally, time-limited, and little influential only in some areas the leader of a community were equipped as a contact of the colonial administration with a power that could lead to structural shifts in power. An example is Morocco, the contract came under French protectorate administration in 1912. The predominantly living in the mountains of the Atlas Berber received against the Arab majority population a legal preference, which was again confirmed in 1930 with the Dahir berbère ( Berber Decree ). This should Berber tribes who had given up their resistance against French rule, be assimilated. The blame for the social problems that have become many independent African states was seen in the continued existence of pre-colonial tribal identities, their preservation was attributed to the colonial powers. The word " tribalism " summed together virtually all undesirable developments.
From the Marxist point of view Maurice Godeliers in the 1970s, the fundamental problem was the importance that was attached to the relationships for the formation of companies. This would obscure the view of the structural relationships that are responsible for the social relations, and that may be disclosed by a neo- structuralist approach.
Overall, the "tribe" disappeared from the socio-political debate, while the word is to this day often still used in the media in his old, prejudiced importance as a handy explanation for all types of economic crises and structural problems in third world countries, especially in the context of the Arab revolutions since the beginning of 2011.
Usefulness of the concept of tribal
In the anthropological debate about the origin and development stages from societies of the tribal concept has proved to be of little use and afflict ideologically, also supposedly explicit definitions of social units have been identified as problematic. However, a similar meaning blur also has the concept of ethnicity. Both manipulations which itself carried out by the group boundaries, claiming collective identity along with the foreign attribution ( external perception ) is investigated. Ethnicity describes the cultural characteristics as a development process within the respective traditions, which forms the specific frame.
The description of certain types of companies as local tribes has to be one among experts largely undisputed importance. It makes sense to use the term tribal among other Islamic societies in North Africa and the Near East, South Asia and the North American Indians. With the word "tribe" within the meaning of defined social groups, which are mostly related to a common ancestor in patrilineal descent, are translated from the languages of the region: Arab qabīla or ʿ ASIRA, from Turkish aşiret and Kurdish eşiret, Turkish / Persian il, and which occurs in several Turkic languages tayfa. People refer to themselves as members of a tribe to which they feel connected in addition to the identification of a lineage in cultural, religious and political terms. In order to understand the historical development, such as arise in an organized form of social life by strains States and can disintegrate again, but it takes on the self-attribution of the tribes beyond theoretical explanation models.
The tribes have existed for centuries and define clearly named criteria on their collective identity. The power of tribes can go so far that they have pushed back the influence of the state to a minimum while within its territory and cooperates the state on the principle of indirect rule with the tribal elders. The Pakistani province of Baluchistan is a prime example of tribal rule.
In North Africa and the Middle East with a predominantly Muslim population, there are, in most cases Muslims who identify with tribal units, while the Christian minorities are splintered into numerous sects which form the social cohesion for its members. Compiled by the Islamic universal religious and political leadership is compatible ideologically with the pursuit of the tribes for political self-determination. However, see also strictly Islamic communities such as the Pashtuns in Pakistan and Afghanistan will be able to connect their tribal identity with the demands of their religion. The jurisprudence of common law and Shari'a must be agreed. It is also true in other areas of society to adapt the universal belief system to local conditions. In many cases, Islam proves this as absorbent, pragmatic and flexible.