Cartography

Cartography (including cartography) is the science and technology for the representation of celestial bodies in topographic and thematic maps, in the simplest case maps. More generally defined, communicated and illustrates them Spatial Information ( Geo ) with analog and digital methods for different media. The manufacturers of these media are called cartographers.

• 4.1 Quality printed cards 4.1.1 completeness
• 4.1.2 accuracy
• 4.1.3 readability and comprehensibility
• 4.1.4 Aesthetics of cartographic design
• 4.1.5 Political and economic influences
• 4.1.6 Special forms

• 5.1 Germany
• 5.2 Austria
• 5.3 Switzerland

Definitions

Representation of objects of cartography are the earth and its surface, but also planets, moons and other celestial bodies. In particular, the surface of the earth with their diverse conditions (terrain, water, vegetation, roads, land use, etc.), with their geoscientific and infrastructural issues and their social, political and historical processes challenges the cartography of great variety of methods.

The field can be divided according to different criteria. It makes sense to at least the division into " theoretical cartography " and " Applied Cartography ". The latter (also called "practical cartography " ) can be divided into "commercial cartography " (card publishers ) and members ' official cartography ". However, other divisions, such as by topic, are possible and common.

In cartography, a distinction illustrate various media. In the first place, of course, the card, but also with their related modes of representation, such as globes, panoramas or contour plots of the terrain. These traditional illustration media have recently added some modern, are presented as three-dimensional models of static or interactive, for example, GIS and other computer programs with the help of spatial information as graphics, images, photographs, films or.

Old, ornate configured cards, but also the craftsmanship of topographers and cartographers are often considered also from an artistic one.

The term " cartography " has emerged about 1828. It is made up from the Latin and Greek " Charter " = Deed and the Greek " grafëin " = draw, describe. The Working Committee of the Surveying Authorities ( AdV ) of the German states and the German Society for Cartography Association ( DGfK ) continue to write " cartography ", while has the notation " cartography " enforced in the private sector, in Austria and the official use of the Switzerland.

Introduction

The main task and thus the central problem of cartography consist of complex, in the original space - 1:1 scale - to reflect ereignende phenomena, issues and processes on a scale considerably reduced display area ( map sheet, screen) and to describe. To make this useful, cartographers from the wealth of original data required to select or summarize the most important or typical and generalize for the display. To illustrate the presentation of information and data that is primarily a system of cartographic signs ( signatures). The generalization of the original data and the design and arrangement of the signatures must be constructed so that the user of the cartographic product which can easily absorb and understand information to be provided. Ultimately, from the original space, such as a Erdoberflächenausschnitt, a model in the form of the cartographic product can be created that allows the user to gain an idea of ​​the original and to expand its located in memory cognitive map or correct.

Another problem is the three-dimensional cartography of the earth. To map larger sections of the earth's surface or even the entire globe in the two-dimensional display surface of a card, it therefore requires special procedures, the map projection, which is devoted to the mathematical cartography.

For spatial definition ( geocoding ) of displayed in the map objects and circumstances working in large-scale cartography with geocentric coordinates with longitude and latitude, while the small-scale cartography in the representation of geographical objects with an area of ​​less than 800 km one way the can neglect curvature of the earth yet, or compensate with correction factors. There, especially for individual countries are local Cartesian coordinate systems are used, such as the Gauss-Krueger - coordinates in Germany. Also, the worldwide UTM coordinate system defined, divided into 800 km wide, vertical stripes, 60 small-scale, metric coordinate systems - partly overlapping - span the globe from west to east.

For most adults, was the base - cartographic work ( cards understanding development and card usage forms ) in the comprehensive school ( History or social studies classes and geography classes ). It " should never be overlooked, that the setting for the card or cards for use in life is strongly influenced during the school day " (R. Ogrissek 1987, p 267 ).

History of Cartography

Antiquity and Middle Ages

The oldest maps come already from the Neolithic period. A wall painting shows a settlement around 6200 BC, and their houses, and the twin peaks of Hasan Dagi volcano ( Important early evidence comes from the Babylonian period. The first serious attempt a useful card for mathematical and geometrical knowledge to make undertook a Anaximander of Miletus ( pupil of Thales ) to 541 BC

As characteristic for the other epochs the world view of the Greek Ptolemy should be ( around 100 AD ). In the oldest manuscripts of his cosmography to find drawings of maps. However, the work was a list of astronomical positions with the astronomical astronomical latitude and longitude in the core. The works of Ptolemy, though still heavily flawed, found out after over 1000 years by the onset of letterpress in 1450 received a wide circulation. Only increased global seafaring in 1500 and the works of Gerhard Mercator rang a turn towards more realism in a cartography.

It is also obtained from the Roman period the tab Peutingeriana, one from west to east unnaturally distorted map of the Roman Empire with an indication of the military stations and distances in miles.

In the Middle Ages, the first maps of Muslim geographers, corrected on the basis of new observations, measurements and discoveries in the 8th century, translated into Arabic works of Ptolemy and exercised considerable influence on European cartography emerged. These here are al - Istakhris maps from the 10th century, and was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily in 1154 -made world map of Abu Abdallah al Charter Rogeriana - Idrisi (also known as Idrisi World Map ).

In the late Middle Ages, the mappae mundi emerged with their most well-known representatives of the Ebstorfer World Map (ca. 1235 ) and the Hereford World Map (ca. 1270). In parallel, there was already quite accurate maps of the Mediterranean, the so-called portolan. The picture at the end of the Middle Ages shows the globe of the Nuremberg scholar Martin Behaim of 1492.

Early Modern Times

Significant advances in cartography were felt from the 16th and 17th centuries. Gradually takes the emancipation of Ptolemy, the adaptation of certain map projections, the substitution of hypothetical fabulous and filling with the results of new discoveries in the field of Asian and American continent.

In 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a globe and a world map and an "Introduction to cosmography " together with Matthias ring man. The atlases are designed, such as that of Gerhard Mercator ( † 1595 ), the age of his sons, and that of Abraham Ortelius ( " Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ", 1570). The Dutch were dominant in the field of cartography.

In the early modern period, it also comes in adjacent sectors of cartography to innovations, the practical benefit appeals especially to travelers. Travel Map ( a precursor of the road atlas ), miles disk ( an early form of the Distance Table ), city map and the city view from bird's eye view open printers and publishers earning opportunities.

In the 18th century the maps down, like the printing press, a trade was made ​​. Of significance is German centers such as Nuremberg (Johann Baptist Homann ) and Augsburg (Matthew Seutter ).

18th to 20th century

Through the ajar to its previous geographical writings publication of Curieusen Gedancken of the most distinguished and accuratesten Country Charters geographer and polymath Johann Gottfried Gregorii alias MELIS ANTES was in 1713 alongside Caspar Gottschling and later Eberhard David Hauber the co-founder of cartography and finally initiated the reappraisal of the history of cartography. In this fundamental work proposes Gregorii cards classifications, signatures, and quality features, describes the state of Cartography in 1700 and presents more than 120 biograms important cartographers. The cooperating with Johann Baptist Homann Kartografietheoretiker vertex tete even small-sized school atlases, which Johann Christoph Weigel published in 1717 in Nuremberg under the title ATLAS PORTATILIS.

With Jacques and César Cassini, which from 1750 to 1793 completed the great triangulation of France and the subsequent established large topographical map, finally began the era of accurate topographical country recordings and critical editing of the cards. French scientists and officers influenced the cartography crucial.

More detailed country surveys were limited at that time, however, on flatter land, while the high mountains was at best shown schematically. Only the innovative activity of the first two Bauernkartografen from Tyrol, Peter Anich and Blasius Hueber, overcame this deficiency with the work on the Atlas Tyrolensis (1760-1774) by suitable triangulations, good portable measuring instruments, own mountain projections and light from the south or west. For the first time they made also glaciers and alpine regions precisely dar.

Mid-19th century was created by General Guillaume -Henri Dufour, a map series 1:100 000 in Switzerland with a direction of illumination from the northwest. This illumination direction was subsequently taken over by many cartographers. It was thanks to the invention of lithography also possible cards to print multi-colored. Thus, the map image was clearer. The 19th century is also the heyday of Atlaskartografie in Germany. Major names in this context are Stieler and Andree.

As in other areas also brought the 20th century, several times a radical upheaval of the original cartographic production and reproduction. With the remote sensing and photogrammetry, a new rich data source, aerial and satellite image, found that not 's here to stay. With the advent of the computer after the Second World War, the image of the mapping has changed dramatically. As part of the establishment of route planners on CD- ROM and as an online service, as well as GPS navigation systems, the development has been reflected in many products.

Quality characteristics of cartographic products

To evaluate the quality cartographic products, they must be tested according to several criteria. For a distinction here between conventional printed maps and modern forms of digital map display. Atlases are usually floor plan representations, the terrain is almost considered " from above". This results in relatively well-defined accuracy and other quality criteria:

Quality of printed cards

The quality of conventional (printed ) cards is usually moored at properties such as completeness of the card's content, accuracy, readability and comprehensibility of the map display, as well as aesthetics of cartographic design.

Completeness

Completeness is given when the card - in terms of the purpose and the scale - that exist in the reality of objects and facts are completely again.

Accuracy

With the accuracy of a map in general accuracy is distinguished by geometric and semantic ( thematic ). A map is geometrically accurate when the cards used characters ( signatures ) represent their corresponding spatial objects in the context of the scale and generalisierungsbedingten display option in the correct position and the correct geometric context. It is semantically accurate when the card symbols used in the map reflect the importance of the corresponding spatial objects correctly.

Readability and comprehensibility

Read and understand a map to take when the card user can get an accurate picture of the reality depicted quickly and easily while reading the map. This can be demonstrated by various characteristics. Graphically well designed map sign of high symbolic and meaningful colors facilitate understanding ( " self-explanatory " card or nature realistic map). A good generalization helps that the essential and typical objects or situations are shown and the card may not be empty, still appears to be overloaded. (This should not be confused with the fact that a card due to different darzustellender circumstances - for example, densely populated areas and large agricultural areas - naturally different density effect. )

Examples for readability and comprehensibility:

• Symbolic power: In a city map, a hospital is symbolized by a red cross, a post office with a yellow post horn.
• Color: colors also have a large symbolic value, which can be used when designing a card. For example, settlements usually red, blue waters, forests displayed in green. It is important to ensure that colors are not too finely graded, since a user can have at most three different shades of the same color to recognize on the map legend. The color recognition is highly dependent on the neighboring color and the contrast effect.
• Generalization of built-up areas: While in a 1:5000 map every building is still represented, have several buildings are summarized in a signature building at 1:50,000. On a scale of 1:500,000 no building can be represented more; here is a built-up area is represented by a colored area.
• Generalization of roads: The boundary lines of a 25 m wide road system at a distance of 2.5 mm at a scale of 1:10,000. Such a double line is legible. On a scale of 1:100,000, the two lines would have to scale but only at a distance of 0.25 mm and were no longer recognizable as a double line. Thus, the card remains evident, the road is represented by a bilinear signature, the two lines have a distance of at least 1 mm, although this time corresponds to a major road width of 100 m at a scale of 1:100,000 four
• Poor generalization: A card must always be rejected as defective if it has been reduced photographically or digitally without cartographic editing and generalization, so that their contents can not be interpreted correctly or are even illegible.

Aesthetics of cartographic design

Although not all people on an equal sense of aesthetics, but there has been some significant features, where you can see the viewer a pleasing, beautiful card. Apart from the above mentioned features, which should be fulfilled, speak well designed, harmonious signatures and a discreet but powerful and highly effective color scheme for a successful map.

Political or economic influences

The quality of a map can generally also be affected thereby, that States in which freedom of information is very limited subject, cartographic products of a censorship or interference. Despite careful cartographic work and appealing design, they can then have significant geometric or semantic flaws.

For economic reasons, not all manufacturers put cartographic products professionals or equip an order with adequate financing from. So there may be qualitatively unsatisfactory results for this reason.

Special shapes

In contrast, the qualitative evaluation with the - usually also associated cartography - Relief Maps and Alpine panoramas little more objectively possible. Here, the alpine terrain representation and the mountains in every strongly distorted perspective of the viewer, as well as his imagination play a crucial role. However, the majority of users can view the mountains and valleys imagine better with good panoramas as a means of even more accurate maps.

Quality digital map

In the modern digital cartography, in which spatial information on screens and displays displayed statically or dynamically and communicate user interactively, the quality characteristics analogous maps for the assessment of quality is not enough. Here, quality must additionally cover the entire information system and its components, such as databases and programs relate. This is called therefore true also of merchantability (English usability ).

Official Cartography

In the area of ​​official ( governmental ) Cartography cartographic products are processed or issued at a public task of the authorities or comparable public institutions. The public, in part based on a law tasks are to use cartographic resources for the purpose of national defense, public safety and the general interest. In this sense, the official cartography include managing, publishing and deployment mainly by

• Official topographical map series,
• Charts and maps hydrogeografischen
• Military Geographic map series,
• Geothematischen and geoscientific maps
• And detailed property maps.

Official cards, especially topographic maps can be purchased as a rule, by anyone, unless they are subject to public use of title. When pricing official maps it should be noted that the sometimes substantial costs for the collection, processing and graphical presentation of spatial data are covered by tax revenues. The consumer participates in the purchase price only at the costs of printing, warehousing and distribution, and data preparation and delivery.

Germany

In Germany the official topographic mapping belongs constitutionally within the legislative power of the states. This take on the task true on the basis of surveying laws and encouraged land survey offices or similar facilities. In order to perform higher-level geodetic tasks and especially for the supply of federal institutions with basic geodata of the Federal Government has set up the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy ( BKG ), headquartered in Frankfurt am Main. The countries have agreed with the federal government through administrative agreements that BKG edited the topographic maps and data 1:200 000 and smaller scales for the whole of Germany and publishes.

Official geothematische cards are handled by the federal, provincial and local authorities depending on legal jurisdiction and issued. These include, for example, geoscience maps, spatial planning and land use planning maps or maps of land use planning.

Official charts in particular for navigation by the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH ) edited with headquarters in Hamburg and Rostock and edited. This has enshrined in the Federal Maritime Responsibilities Act the federal government.

In the GDR, the Topographic Service Dresden with the branch office of Photogrammetry ( aerial photography ) in Leipzig, the Topographic Service of Erfurt and the Topographic Service Schwerin for the National Map Series (Issue economy ), the regional situation and the country level networks and the gravity network were responsible. In 1971 was the Combine Geodesy and Cartography with the administration surveying and cartography, which was subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior of the GDR, responsible for the official Geodesy and Cartography. In addition, lay various tasks, such as the National Map Series ( output state ) when Militärtopographischen service of the NVA with the Militärkartographischen service in Halle and the Cartographic Service of Potsdam. The official topographical maps, based on the topographic map of the GDR with a scale of 1: 10,000 as a basic scale.

Austria

The Federal Office of Metrology and Surveying (BEV ) is responsible for the official cartography in Austria.

Switzerland

The Federal Office of Topography ( swisstopo ) is responsible for the official cartography in Switzerland.

Study

As an academic study of cartography is set at five universities and several colleges around the world, in the German language, among other things at the TU Dresden ( Faculty of Environmental Sciences; looked after by the local Institute of Cartography ) and the University of Munich.

Publishers

Since 2001, the market share of printed maps or street maps per year by about ten percent reduced. Data providers with extensive databases for navigation devices include Navteq and Tele Atlas. The Schulkartografie as " Basiskartografie for everyone" and as a former pioneer field of analog cartography takes today (2013 ) a significant place in the Verlagskartografie one.

While the development of Schulkartografie centrally by the National Education or the school system over the people and knowledge Verlag ( Berlin) and the publisher VEB Hermann Haack ( Gotha ) was controlled in the GDR, was the textbook production in West Germany, especially as directed by publishers. In total Germany (from 1990), this principle was maintained in the production of cartographic teaching aids, so nowadays are mainly developed ( in fractured age of Geomatics ) on the basis of framework curricula through relevant textbook publishers in collaboration with academic experts and educational consultants cartographic media.

As textbook publishers who produce school atlases and school maps in Germany, for example, Cornelsen / Volk und Wissen (Berlin), Klett-Perthes ( Gotha ) and Westermann ( Braunschweig) are mentioned. The publishers Klett-Perthes and Westermann are also a leader in the development of school wall maps.

New Developments

In addition to the fee-based data of the commercial data providers arise from the development of Internet services also freely available spatial databases that are built and maintained in non- commercial projects. An example is OpenStreetMap mentioned. The cartographic quality standards are not guaranteed, at least in the initial phase, but the actuality surpasses in some areas already that of the large spatial data provider.

Organizations

• International Cartographic Association (ICA or ICA / ACI )
• German Society of Cartography
• Association of cartographic publishers in Germany
• Working Committee of the Surveying Authorities of the States of the Federal Republic of Germany ( AdV )
• Austrian Cartographic Commission ( Working Group of the ÖGG )
• Swiss Society of Cartography
• Swisstopo, the geo-information center of the Federal Government ( Switzerland )