Cushitic languages

The Cushitic languages ​​are a primary branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, and are in the northeast of Africa, especially the Horn of Africa, spoken.

The largest single languages ​​are Oromo language spoken by about 30 million people and the spoken of at least 12 million Somaliland, the national language of Somalia. More Cushitic languages ​​, each with over one million speakers are Sidama, Hadiyya, Kambaata and Afar.

• 4.1 Nominal Morphology
• 4.2 Verbal morphology 4.2.1 Präfixkonjugation
• 4.2.2 suffix conjugation
• 4.2.3 Derivation

• 5.1 Overview
• 5.2 Internal and External Classification
• 5.3 reconstruction

Classification

The Cushitic languages ​​comprehensive eight smaller units, which are generally recognized, their relationships to each other but are controversial.

The Beja spoken in Egypt, Eritrea and Sudan is usually classified as Nordkuschitisch, sometimes it is but spun off as a separate primary branch of the Afro Asiatic from the Cushitic. The Dullay languages, the Yaaku that hochlandostkuschitischen languages ​​and the tieflandostkuschitischen languages ​​are usually grouped together for the Ostkuschitischen, which thus forms the largest group within the Cushitic. The togetherness of the group is, however, doubted by some scientists. For Südkuschitischen expects Ehret 1980, the languages ​​spoken in Kenya and Tanzania Rift languages, Dahalo and Mbugu, a Cushitic - Bantu mixed language. The Dahalo is also expected to Ostkuschitischen; some researchers estimate that the Rift languages ​​for Tieflandostkuschitischen, so the Südkuschitische fell away. The Agaw or Zentralkuschitische includes several languages ​​in the Ethiopian highlands, including Bilen and Awngi.

Thus, the following classification is obtained ( Agaw by Appleyard 2006 Südkuschitisch by Ehret 1980 The controversial groupings are in italics. )

• Nordkuschitisch: Beja
• Agaw ( Zentralkuschitisch ) Awngi
• North Agaw Blin - Xamtanga: Blin
• Xamtanga

• Hochlandostkuschitisch: Sidama, Kambaata et al
• Tieflandostkuschitisch: Saho - Afar, Omo - Tana languages ​​, Oromo, Konso
• Dullay
• Yaaku

• Dahalo
• Mbugu
• Rift languages: Iraqw, inter alia,

Traditionally, the omotischen languages ​​were counted as Westkuschitisch the Cushitic; Most scientists consider this today but for its own primary branch of the Afro Asiatic. Also the Ongota is singled expected to Cushitic.

Research and classification history

The first scientific studies to Cushitic languages ​​go back to Job Ludolf (1624-1704), who dealt in addition to the Äthiosemitischen also with the Cushitic Oromo. The first major representations Cushitic languages ​​, in turn, the Oromo were published by Karl and Johann Ludwig Krapf Tuschtek 1840-1845. Other languages ​​of East Africa were at the same time known in Europe, which proved to be related to the Oromo. The advanced knowledge of the Cushitic enabled soon to recognize these languages ​​as related to the Semitic and some North African languages. Richard Lepsius took first ostkuschitische languages ​​and the Beja under the name " Cushitic " as a subunit of the " Hamitic ", a forerunner of today's Afro Asiatic, together. More detailed descriptions of the other eight and a Cushitic language omotischen put towards the end of the 19th century, the Austrian Leo Reinisch ago. In addition, he attempted a subclassification of the Cushitic, however, proved not to be applicable for the first time. Especially Italian researchers made in the first half of the 20th century deserves the description of new languages ​​and comparative linguistic research. Among them is particularly Martino Mario Moreno mentioned that a new classification proposed in 1940, which remains valid even today in its basic features:

• Ani - ati - languages Nordkuschitisch: Beja
• Zentralkuschitisch
• Ostkuschitisch Niederkuschitisch
• Burji - Sadamo
• Other groups

• Westkuschitisch Yamna
• Ometo
• Himira
• Gonga

The subdivision into ani - ati and ta - ne - languages ​​based on the different forms of personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, which form only one of the many major differences between " Westkuschitisch " and the rest. Joseph Greenberg arranged in the course of his new classification of the languages ​​of Africa, a number of languages ​​spoken in Kenya and Tanzania languages ​​as " Südkuschitisch " to; 1969 Affiliate Harold Fleming from the " Westkuschitische " from the Cushitic and ordered it under the name " Omotisch " as a separate primary branch of the Afro Asian one. In the second half of the 20th century, progress was also made in the subclassification of Ostkuschitischen, which was still running very rough in Moreno's classification.

Phonology

Consonants

Ehret 1987 reconstructs a proto- Cushite consonant inventory. As for the Afro-Asiatic generally the pharyngeal fricative [ ʕ ] and [ ħ ] and to be found only in the lateral fricatives Südkuschitischen are also available for the Cushitic glottalized sounds, characteristic. In addition, have larger portions of the Cushitic also labiovelars.

Vowels

In Beja, Ostkuschitischen, Südkuschitischen and perhaps also in the Proto - Cushitic is a five-stage system with an opposition is long - short: a - e - i - o - u - aa - ee - ii - oo - uu. The Agaw are additionally the vowels æ, ə to find, are there any distinctive importance of vowel quantity. But It should be noted that these similarities are primarily typological nature and genetic correspondences between the individual linguistic systems are more complex and less well known.

Sound

In almost all Cushitic languages ​​is the sound of of distinctive meaning; Most systems include a high tone and a neutral tone; partially, there are also contour tones. Often the tone marks only grammatical distinctions, as in Bedscha Kitaab " book" - Kitab "books", but it can also have lexical meaning, such as minimal pairs such as Somali Beer " liver " - show beer " garden ".

Morphology

Nominal morphology

In the nominal morphology is a great diversity in the Cushitic indeed be found, it can be found but still similarities that it shares with other primary branches of the Afro Asiatic.

In general, the Cushitic on the two genera masculine and feminine, the singular and plural Numbers and some more case. The feminine is marked in the majority of languages ​​with an element t, compare Bedscha ʾ oor "son" - ʾ oor -t "daughter", Somali wiil -ka " boy " ( masculine ) - beer- ta "garden" ( feminine ), Oromo thrush - essa "rich" ( masculine ) - thrush - ettii "rich" ( feminine ). In contrast to the mostly unmarked singular to find various means to form the plural: However, secondary singulative can of plural nouns in meaning by suffixes are formed, see about Awnji bun " coffee " - Buna " coffee bean".

In Proto - Cushitic there were two or three case that / i have been marked in the nominative masculine in the least by the suffixes -a and-u in the absolutive. The existence of a genitive in-i is less likely.

Verbal morphology

Präfixkonjugation

In Beja and Ostkuschitischen there is a conjugation by präfigierter persons marker. The fact that this is an archaism, showing the fact that these Präfixkonjugation is restricted to certain verbs, but is also found in the Berber and Semitic. In it, several aspects / modes are distinguished by ablaut and infixes. The Beja has a very complex system with temporal, modal and aspectual distinctions, which must be viewed to a large extent as an innovation. In the ostkuschitischen languages ​​, however, are just a perfect / past tense and present tense / past tense, partly also formed a subjunctive / jussive. " Devour " The conjugation of the verb is in the Afar:

Suffix conjugation

The Präfixkonjugation was greatly reduced in all Cushitic languages ​​Cushitic by innovation: the Cushitic suffix conjugation, in which the conjugation with suffixed personal endings. Despite the outward similarity is not genetically related according to the general view of the Afro-Asiatic suffix conjugation. After a late 19th century by Franz Praetorius proposed theory go back to their personal endings präfixkonjugierte a copula. Regarding the suffixkonjugierten tenses, modes, and aspects are large differences between the different languages. While about the Somali can form a variety of differentiated forms, the system of the Oromo also ostkuschitischen is very simple and also has similarities with the Ablautverhältnissen the Präfixkonjugation (Perfect e, a past tense, subjunctive u), which is why it could be particularly archaic ( Deem " go " ):

Derivation

By affixes itself derived verbs can be formed, which can be found in particular affixes s for causatives, m for passive and reflexive verbs and t for the medium, see the following examples from the Somali:

• For " open " > for- the " open "
• For " open ", " open for itself " > at fur-
• Cun "eat" " can eat " > cun - sii