German orthography

As German Spelling spelling of standard German is called.

• 2.1 popularization of standard German
• 2.2 pedagogisation of standard German
• 2.3 Low German language

• 3.1 Basic rules and changes in the German Spelling
• 3.2 Previous use of certain letters
• 3.3 Significant people of German orthography history

• 4.1 General
• 4.2 Orthographic Dictionary

History

From the Middle Ages to the 18th century

The earliest surviving written records of the German language date from the 8th century. The Latin alphabet served as the basis for the Verschriftung. The difficulty was overcome, that there was not for all German lute, such as the umlaut, own characters. Around the year 1000 sets Notker of St Gall its spelling phonetic- phonological observations based ( Notker cal Anlautgesetz ). The punctuation develops from the High Middle Ages. As of 1300, the Virgel is used as punctuation, and capital letters are gradually used to mark beginnings. From the 14th century the German Latin has increasingly reduced as the chancellery. To spread a High German written language it came from 1522 by the German Bible translation by Martin Luther.

In texts from the 16th to 18th century, there are still large numbers of double consonants at unnecessary by today's standards bodies, namely, when the consonant in one syllable at a diphthong ( as in the word " auff " ) or preceding consonants (for example, in the word " Kampff " ) follows. Instead of doubling, however, in certain consonant combinations were used with other consonants that are still in use today, about tz instead of zz, ck instead kk dt or dd instead. In addition, we employed the notations aw au instead, EW instead AEU, ew instead of eu and ey instead of egg in auslautenden with these diphthongs syllables (for example, "new " instead of " new", "W " is still considered the original " double - U " to understand, to EY see next section). This is no longer used in the spelling for around 200 years old forms are still partially in family and place names ( for example, " Pfeiffer ", " Speyer " ) and included in the name of the federal states of Bavaria and Baden- Württemberg.

Making a good impression of a notation of the late 18th century conveys the available from many sources in original orthography " Urfaust " of Goethe. However, its original spelling has to other German texts to a major difference: Goethe had his works in the " Latin" Antiqua set. You already lacked in broken scripts (for example, fracture ) and the handwritten German cursive usual distinction between the " long S " ( s ) and the " round S" ( s) that the typeface German texts coined until the 20th century and their control was part of the German spelling. However, the " long S" since the introduction of Antiqua in the Renaissance until the second half of the 18th century has been common in Europe, also in this font. It is therefore a special character still available in the character set of " Times New Roman" and many other writings. The same applies to the " Latin " script. There saw the " long S" However, just like a small " H" of the "German" cursive, sometimes leading to confusion and thus to change from " ss" in "hs " in particular by name.

Until the 18th century and beyond, there was no generally accepted spelling. Each writer wrote in the framework of general rules spontaneously as he held it in person just right. In times where he was not sure, he changed the spelling may in the same text, if not in the same sentence. He was oriented in addition to their education at a wide variety of role models, especially to the official announcements. In this way were formed - from the state firms - trends and regional differences out. They led from about the mid-18th century to the fact that you slowly adopted more and more by doubling the old rules.

Published in 1788 Johann Christoph Adelung orthography proposals that formed the basis for the spelling lessons in German schools at the beginning of the 19th century. They restricted among other things the hitherto often exuberant use of the beta, but has not been contradicted in detail.

19th century

Until the early 19th century was held today in many words ei ey ey or written (for example " Bey " instead of " at "). The notation was developed under the doubling of eij. The "j " was originally only a minor form of the " i" that was used on the word beginning or end.

The scientists and writers who dealt intensively with the German language, had quite different objectives for spelling. They ranged from " write as you speak! " To extremely historical notation, for example Leffel instead of spoon because here no o became the umlaut, but the foregoing l discolored an original e. The Brothers Grimm, which set a milestone in German linguistics with her German dictionary, propagated and practiced a moderate sensitivity with extremely economical use of large initial letter. One author wrote throughout his extensive work instead of z tz.

From about 1850 there were deliberations that led ( 1854 Hannover, Leipzig 1857, Württemberg in 1860, Prussia in 1862, Bavaria in 1863, Austria in 1868 ) to the development of orthography instructions for schools.

After the Empire of 1871, the reputation grew louder after unification of the rules.

In January, 1876 was held in Berlin at the invitation of the Prussian minister of education, Adalbert Falk, the I. Orthographic Conference towards greater unity in the German spelling, which was attended by representatives except the states of the German Empire also delegates from Austria and Switzerland. After some extensive proposals were agreed very moderate. The resolutions were but implemented differently in the States of the Empire. 1879 and 1880 was the publication of the Bavarian and Prussian official rule books, which were then adopted with minor changes in the rest of Germany. 1879 took place in Austria, the first introduction of the force there until 1901 heyseschen s- sensitive.

The few innovations have been partially opposed by prominent public figures, to debates in the German Reichstag.

More effective than meetings of academies was the work of Konrad Duden. With the creation and publication (1880 ) of its orthographic dictionary entitled " Full orthographic dictionary of the German language - According to the new Prussian and Bavarian rules," he propagated - as an individual - a synthesis of the national (particularly Prussian and Bavarian ) school rules.

20th century

Thirty years after the German Empire of 1871, the German written language was first regulated uniformly on the Second Orthographic Conference of 1901. One important change was the final abolition of th do in words of German origin like, door, Thal. That the th - spelling has been retained in words of Greek origin such as throne and theater, often the personal action of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II was attributed. Relatively many word writes concerned the introduction of variant spellings and rewrites in foreign words with c: In the vast majority of words now could also, in many now had to be written z, or k (depending on pronunciation ) (accent beside Accent ). Duden dictionary remained significant, when the Federal Council in 1902 is binding for the entire German Reich "Rules for German spelling dictionary along with " adopted. The new orthography Duden became binding in the authorities issued a decree on January 1, 1903 to April 1, 1903 in the schools. However, it was also observed in Austria and Switzerland.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the German scholar Joseph Lammertz created a text that until now no one can write error-free. It is the spread of the Wrocław teacher Oskar Kosog and named after him Kosog'sche dictation. Through the publication of this text in a small font Kosogs Our spelling and the need for their thorough reform (1912 ) of these to a wider audience made ​​it clear that there is still a need for reform.

One limitation of the large number of established and approved variant spellings and further rules for punctuation, which were not resolved at the Second Orthographic Conference, were introduced by Konrad Duden in 1915 by integrating the " printer Duden " in the general sec.

As in the 1920s, many traditions have been critically examined, there were also calls for a fundamental reform of German orthography. To hit a author named A. Schmitz, 1920 in the Journal of the General German Language Club under the article title " What shall provide a new spelling? " To simplify the presentation of vocal strain, v and replace ph by f and the spelling of foreign words adapt German pronunciation rules, where, for example, g is not pronounced as [g ] or h is silent.

Remained largely unknown, that in the time of National Socialism an attempt at spelling reform was undertaken by Reich Education Minister Bernhard Rust. New rules of the reform of German orthography from 1944 were printed before in a million copies, but were not implemented. A lasting impact on the appearance of German texts had the general introduction of the Latin alphabet. Until the early 20th century in the pressure had broken fonts, handwritten the Sütterlinschrift and other Kurrentschriften dominated. The increasing use of serif fonts and its handwritten counterpart, the italics, was initially fought more fiercely by the Nazis as of other nationalist circles. In 1941 came the order to the contrary. Hitler ordered the immediate conversion to Antiqua. In the context of the simple in principle, but overall extensive provisions were meaningless, which govern the use of long s (s ) and final -s.

In the following decades the German spelling de facto was further developed by the editors of the "Duden ". After the Second World War, this tradition was continued twice in Leipzig and Mannheim (East and West -Duden ). In West Germany intervened in the early 1950s some publishers the de facto monopoly on Duden, by they released dictionaries with different spellings. Then, declared the Minister of Culture of the West German federal states the dictionary by decision of November 1955 in all cases of doubt, orthographic binding.

The Dudenredaktion went on the one hand is conservative by looking at it as their primary task of documenting the predominant language in the dictionary. On the other hand, it developed in the regulations to clarify more and more new cases of doubt ever finer ramifications.

The specialized academic debate politicized in the wake of the 1968 Movement: A standardized spelling was criticized as repressive and as a means of social selection. Reform proposals no longer sought only to clarify ambiguities but wanted German Spelling dramatically simplify and thereby in particular simplify learning to write.

Common to many proposals, the call for " moderate sensitivity " was that the overall capitalization of nouns should be abolished, which are maintained by proper names, however. Such a reform was carried out after the Second World War, Denmark.

However, yielded a highly regarded study in the Netherlands that the Germans corresponding upper and lower case has a great influence on the reading speed. The subjects were having such a large -insensitive able texts in their native language much faster to read than in moderate sensitive. (Presentation and references in the grammar, the word / the set. ) Response was discussed in several European countries, including Britain, about introducing a German respective upper and lower case letters. However, the discussions were invariably in the sand.

In the period after the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in 1949 to safeguard the linguistic unit with the new German Democratic Republic (GDR ) was a motive for the omission renewed attempts at reform. Following the détente of the German government, however, was from 1980, the International Working Group come together for orthography, the professionals from these two countries, Austria and Switzerland belonged. Soon after the accession of the GDR to the FRG did the spelling reform of 1996. Unlike, for example in France with the French Academy there was no appointed from tradition for voice monitoring and control instance in the German language area. A similar institution was created after persistent criticism of the reform of 1996 with the Council for German Orthography in 2004, their first task, initially to revise the contentious areas of the existing revision of spelling, was completed in February 2006.

Presence

With the reform of German orthography from 1996 a prescriptive set of rules was created, the greater in 2006 since 2007 at schools in Germany and in similar form also in Austria and Switzerland is binding after a small revision in 2004. Since 1999, the regulatory framework is also binding on the German federal government.

The modified rules took effect in Germany on 1 August 2006 officially in force. Especially in foreign words, but also in several other cases, many variant spellings are also in the newly introduced rules dated been authorized (eg orthography / spelling ). In order to ensure a uniform spelling within a plant or a series of works, both the Duden and the Wahrig editorial recommends only one of these variants, but in some cases not the same. The recommendations are marked in the spelling dictionaries, Wahrig additionally brought out a special dictionary. The Association of the German news agency has issued a list of recommendations, which coincides largely with the dictionary and the Wahrig recommendations; when the two recommendations differ, she chooses sometimes one, sometimes the other variant.

The reformed spelling, however, was at least 2008 or advocated by only a small minority of the German population and was rejected by a majority, as a set of surveys found.

Social factors for standardizing the orthography

According Mattheier the educated classes is the carrier of social developments at the end of the 18th and during the 19th century. This layer of the population gained influence and thus they had strong social history. The language became a social symbol of bourgeois society. Through them, the educated middle class has been defined as a group. This included the possibility of separation from under the middle layers and standing against the gentry. The citizens were raised temporarily from these other groups in society through their linguistic and communicative competence and their own language variety, which they used in writing and orally, from. Due to the prestige of the bourgeoisie and this variety impersonated other people should have the language and etiquette forms of the bourgeoisie, which was responsible for the spread.

According Mattheier At the end of the 19th century included not the values ​​of the previous centuries. Privileges of the nobility and agriculture were considered void. What mattered now was property and education. Educated were carriers of society. They had held the most respected positions. At the beginning of their careers, the educated writers, journalists, private tutor, theologians were. Many climbed the social ladder to be pastors, professors, teachers in secondary schools, jurist or they even came in high administrative positions. Legitimacy to these positions they were by their knowledge.

Gradually entry requirements for certain positions have been created, the educated classes tend to be quite satisfied as an aristocrat. For example, for entry into a Prussian officer's career the primary maturity was demanded at a Prussian gymnasium. In the 19th century, the educated middle class was thus de facto functional elite. In addition Mattheier argues that this social layer has experienced the Enlightenment and additionally by a philosophical- aesthetic and pedagogical cant an ideological appreciation. Then there was the national fragmentation of the German language area. The ideal of a nation of culture developed, which was also supported by the bourgeoisie with its literary- aesthetic claim, which was based on the classical and thus, among other things Goethe. This ideal could only be enforced by a standardized High German. The language variety of the educated middle class here served as a model.

The imitation through the other layers, however, led the newly created borders were permeable. The default language became the symbol of the social formation of citizens to the national symbol of all German speakers. For the process of full implementation of the standard language makes Mattheier the process of popularization and the pedagogisation responsible. Popularization sees itself as the just been called propagation and displacement of all competing varieties. Pedagogisation here means that it is taught in schools of all kinds.

Popularization of standard German

In the process of popularization of standard German all other varieties were stigmatized. Dialects were negatively and were a sign of backwardness. Particularly strong was the stigma in central and northern Germany. Dialect has been associated with quality rustic or labor and lack of education. This stigma is even today, because of it, still exists.

The process of standard formation took place in the context of an institutionalized. Theater, public administrations and parliamentary institutions began early because of their regional function with standardization. The development of language standardization included even the newly established fourth estate - the worker. For members of the Social Democratic Workers' Party intensive training speakers were created.

Pedagogisation of standard German

In the 19th century the German learned an appreciation. It was introduced as a separate subject in school. Techniques, such as reading and writing were now taught specifically. Also text types were taught. The students learned to produce, among other speeches, letters and administrative texts in a standard language form of the ideal of classical music. High language literature was canonized and made ​​it to the learning object. The default language has been exploited and repressed dialectal language at school. Orthographic rules were expanded, unified and solidified. Violations were sanctioned increasingly sharp.

Low German language

In contrast to the High German written language Low German written language is not officially standardized. However, it is increasingly established by the 1956 in Hamburg "Rules for the Low German Spelling " and influences the dictionary of John Sass. In Mecklenburg Vorpommern and however prevail more before the local conventions derived from texts known local poet and contain some special characters for dialectal sounds.