Sampling (music)

In the music (sound ) Sampling refers to the process part of a - already completed - sound or music recording (one sample; engl for, selection ',' pattern ',' Example ', from Latin exemplum ,' image '. example ', sound sample for, sound test ' to use ) in a new, often musical context. This is done nowadays usually with a hardware or software sampler, that is, the selected sound piece is normally digitized and stored so that it can be further processed (eg, a sequencer ) with audio programs.

• 4.1 General
• 4.2 USA
• 4.3 Germany

Basics

Since there may be an arbitrarily long or short sound recording, not only excerpts from music will be sampled, but also individual sounds or noises. For individual tones and acoustic instruments are used as a sound source. In the meantime, this type sampling is very advanced, and they range from simple folk instruments such as flutes or drums to comprehensive so-called multi-samples of the complete orchestral instruments. Multisamples are many individual samples that are collected in so-called " mapping ". This includes dynamic levels (piano, mezzo forte, fortissimo, etc.) and special instrumental typical articulations of the musicians (example: stroke of the bow up, down, plucked: violin ). In the result, this instrument samples are able to produce very complex, resulting in a distinctive market segment has developed. Especially in the film music orchestra such samples are used. In this case, they must be usually played with a keyboard keypad, the instrument typical game nuances to be considered when recording. Well-known composers, using such samples are Hans Zimmer, James Newton Howard, Jeff Rona, Harold Faltermeyer.

The techniques

Also popular are samples of exotic instruments, drums and percussion, vocals, and of vintage synthesizers and keyboards. Another segment is Special Sound Effects, the partially displaced the common foley artist or craft but at least the options has expanded enormously.

Sampling is also a commonly used technique of pop music: Especially in hip- hop and electronic music genres such as Trip - Hop, Drum and Bass, Big Beat and House samples are often used existing music recordings are taken. It plays a subordinate role, how long are these samples, because partially complete choruses are sampled and " built into" new music. Sampling is also used by many musicians, especially keyboardists, in almost all styles of music, as hereby among others, the almost faithful imitation of natural instruments is possible (see above). Two different pieces with the same beat and ductus are superimposed occasionally by sampling. A prominent example is the mixture of Blue Monday by New Order with Can not Get You Out of My Head by Kylie Minogue (→ Mashup ).

Technology of digital sampling

Electrical oscillations of a signal source ( the sound ), as from a microphone, musical instrument, mixer output or a measuring process are recorded digitally at very short time intervals as measured voltage values ​​(samples). The result ( as it were a series of measurement results ) can be played on opposite paths again, the data is converted back into analog waveforms. The sound quality during playback depends on the sampling rate (in kHz) and resolution ( in bits ) from (see below). In a conventional audio CD, for example ( each stereo channel ) are stored such readings in one second 44,100. The resolution in this case is 16 bit for a reading. This results in 65,536 possible voltage levels from the maximum negative value result to the maximum positive value of the oscillation curve.

The recorded data (usually sounds ) can be loaded into the memory of a computer in order to modify them as required, or play a computer-aided as well as so-called samples. It is by means of such calculations in the computer possible to add effects such as reverb or echo, noise reduction purposes to make sound regulations, and also to carry out very precise analysis and corrections of the original analog signal. Thanks to the modern GUI today's software, the sample can be very well represented as a graph. You can work with arbitrary precision by means of this representation and the possibility of increasing the smallest periods of time, because the sound is "frozen " in memory and can be played after each processing step to control.

Furthermore, in accordance with a high sampling rate and resolution also metrological applications in electrical engineering and physics are conceivable. This one is not only limited to sound events.

The length of a sample varies depending on the application between the time duration of a note from a musical instrument to a complete track of film. Moreover, the lengths are limited only by the storage capacity of the respective data memory.

When used in the music so the recorded sample will either be integrated into an existing piece of music or is in the form of an endless loop (Loop) as the backbone for a new piece. Example, it is possible to sample the entire range of a musical instrument and then (eg via MIDI keyboard ) to play without actually owning. Here, a sample of the instrument is not only saved, but several ( multisampling ), then do not have to be transposed over the entire range. In the extreme case, each note in the scale is applied in several volume levels as a sample. So also phonetic differences between soft and loud attacks can be reproduced.

However, since the overall sound of natural instruments, usually consists of more than the sum of individual tones, sampling runs up against its limits. Frequently, therefore, tries to compensate for this shortcoming by other supplementary sound production methods ( physical modeling for simulation of cabinet resonances and the like ). There remain in the representation of very modulatory capabilities instruments whose sound (especially the transient ) very characteristic depending on the style of play (eg, strings, brass, guitar, human voice ) problems. To solve this problem an attempt is made, for example, for each tone multiple samples to use (multiple multisampling ), which are then dependent (eg velocity of the keyboard ) blend into each other by the way of playing or even morphed.

To work with samples, you need a sampler. A sampler can be both a physical device (for example, a sound card in the computer, or a sampler as a standalone device ) as well as software ( software sampler ) occur.

Audio Sample

An audio sample is a digitized analog audio signal. In this case be removed and stored to the analog audio signal via an A / D converter cutouts (samples). This was done initially with a resolution of 8 bits, then with 16 and 24 bit. The standard sampling rate was 44.1 kHz for a long time, but now established a sampling frequency of 96 kHz ( 44,100 or 96,000 samples per second).

An analog signal has at each time point on the time axis of a particular signal value. One speaks here of time continuity. A digitized audio signal is time-discrete, that is, to the analog signal takes a finite number of instantaneous values ​​. The restriction is necessary because the subsequent conversion of the material into a numerical value requires a certain amount of time. Elaboration of the resulting sampling period is defined with TA.

A sampler is initially a recording device such as a tape recorder. The recording time was at the beginning of Samplerära still very limited, it was partly just in seconds. Later samplers were equipped with more RAM and you could record for longer samples.

A sampler yet also has numerous manipulation and editing options, with which you can change the audio. Digital filters ( lowpass / highpass / parametric filter), EQs, etc. belong to the basic equipment of a modern sampler.

Hardware sampler play since the late 90s, a diminishing role, as powerful computers allow a much more favorable software version. To mention were here software sampler such as the " EXS24 " ( Apple / Emagic ), "Contact" ( Native Instruments ) or " Independence" (from Yellow Tools ). These can also read the sample libraries of older samplers and are typically used as plug-ins on the channel strip of DAWs.

Have software sampler over the older sampling technique ( using analog and digital hardware sampler ( tone generator) ) the decisive advantage, so to be able to be with eye and ear, processed through the computer screen. Thus the cut, loop and arrangement of music production is flexible and faster.

History

The Mellotron, analog prototype of the sampler, in 1963 came on the market. It works with 3/8 inch wide, with three tracks recorded tapes. Each key is assigned its own to tape strip that is played when you press the button on a tape head. When the button is released, the tape of a spring is quickly retracted to its original position.

The era of digital sampling began in 1979 with integrated digital synthesis, recording and sampling systems in the high price range as Fairlight CMI and Synclavier. The emulator I ( 1981) was already available a little later for a five-figure sum in the mid- 1980s were the Ensoniq Mirage sampler like or the Akai S -612 for bands and solo musicians (eg for home recording ) affordable. Sampler could be used to play with home-recorded sounds like your own voice or sounds, but also the sound of other musical instruments in the studio and on the stage simulated. Traditional instruments such as strings and brass and synth sounds were played as a media material. At the same time, the synthetic sounds were electronically controlled drum machines complemented by sampled 'real' drum sounds or completely replaced, which could be accessed directly, or with an automatically generated rhythmic and metric. The most fascinating of sampling was initially just to its universal availability before been formed aesthetic standard procedure in correlation with the equipment design.

With the availability of affordable technology, sampling used in the subsequent period increasingly in popular music. The company Casio Sampling Keyboard 1985 SK- 1 prior, which allows for the first time (still in 8 bit), take two to three seconds of sound and play it back in all pitches.

Especially in pop music and the hip-hop ( MPC), the method enjoys great popularity soon. One of the most popular pioneer was the piece Pump up the volume by MARRS from the year 1987. In 1988, Akai S1000 presented with the one of the first 16 - bit sampler, which reached CD quality playback. The 16- bit standard is the mid-nineties professionally usual. Genres such as Drum and Bass, Breakbeat, House or trip-hop based procure now almost entirely due to the new possibilities that the sampler, as the company Akai, Roland, Emu, or Korg, musicians. Record collections serve as a repository for the search for the ideal loop.

Samples were - since the early 1980s on 8-bit home computers used ( such as video game Ghostbusters, 1984) - in very limited quality. It develops from about 1987 the tracker scene created on newer home computers or standard PC with a sound card sophisticated music demos.

In the studio technology professional music studios end keeps the nineties digital recording technology final collection, tape machines are found today hardly. Today, there are a few pieces of music that are not digitally (eg by DAT Tape) captured, edited and mixed, even in the rock music, this technique is now standard.

Nowadays, samples are usually administered directly to the computer and played back using an audio sequencer or software sampler, making the hardware samplers have largely disappeared from the studios. However, the hardware compilation of the first generations of devices tonal characteristics that are considered interesting in character and in some musicians and producers now enjoy a certain cult status. Including the first sampler of Emu, Akai, Ensoniq and Dynacord.

Legal Issues

General

The use of samples is one of the most controversial issues in the music industry, because despite a supreme court ruling further legal issues are unresolved, but at the same time these sound fragments are widely used. Samples are now widespread in the music industry and have developed into an independent style. However, this style tends to collisions with foreign copyrighted works, as the case law shows. Samples may be the subject of plagiarism lawsuits in which occur as a plaintiff usually the music publisher of the original copyright holder and as a defendant the record company or music producer of the sampling work.

USA

Biz Markie published in August 1991, the LP I Need a Haircut, on which the song Alone Again was. Gilbert O'Sullivan had the single Alone Again ( Naturally) published in March 1972, which penetrated up to Rank 3 in the UK. O'Sullivan refused the approval, and Biz Markie published notwithstanding the song with sample from O'Sullivan's original. In that time, samples of this type were in a gray area, without that there was jurisdiction to do so.

A drastic change in the publication practice meant the judgment delivered in December 1991 ruling Grand Upright Music, Ltd.. against Warner Brothers Records, Inc. of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. The court sentenced the record company Warner Music Group for an album of her artist Biz Markie. He had three words and some music from a piece of Gilbert O'Sullivan sampled without having to have the copyright permission; this was until judgment a common practice in hip-hop that only made ​​publications such as Public Enemy possible in shape. The court decided that this would be (specifically American copyright law) a violation of U.S. copyright law. The justification that this would be the usual technique in hip hop was ". Defendants [ ... ] assure the court that [ this type ] theft in the music industry is rife, and for this reason was her behavior inexcusable" Sample Rich plates were so that in future no longer possible. Usually it is financially and organizationally hardly possible to use more than one or two samples, the sound of hip- hop music changed then prevail. Either based the pieces more on a sample and were thus cover versions of similar, or artists such as Dr. Dre and others used the technique of interpolation: the desired samples have been loaded, so that only the songwriter but no longer with musicians, singers and record companies had to be negotiated.

A stir a sampling of Roy Orbison - million Sellers Oh, Pretty Woman has ensured, by 2 Live Crew. The rap quartet 2 Live Crew had the LP As Clean As They Wanna Be released on July 15, 1989, on which also the coming of August in 1964 in the original "Pretty Woman" was included ( with mention of the authors Orbison / Dees ). On 5 July 1989, informed Orbison's music publisher Acuff - Rose Publishing on the intended parody of 2 Live Crew, but refused a permit. Nevertheless, the parody was published. After nearly 250,000 LPs sold it came to complain. 2 Live Crew took over the typical guitar / bass / drums riff from the original as a sample and changed the text slightly and also the rhythm from their version. The changes were not substantial, so that the original remains recognizable even for the layman. It came to the plagiarism lawsuit that ultimately - ended when the U.S. Supreme Civil Court ( Supreme Court ) on March 7, 1994 - across multiple instances. The court saw no copyright infringement, but an allowable case the fair use doctrine in the context of a - not explicitly valued by the court - parody. 2 live crew version was up to a certain degree a critical commentary on the original.

Germany

Sampling is called in German legal language " electronically copy ". However, music producers can not to by § 85 Section 1 of the German Copyright Act ( Copyright Act) protected economic, organizational and technical performance of phonogram producers without their consent and thus appointed without compensation if it is them even possible to produce the desired tone sequence without legal intervention. ( LP's new S-Class, in March 1997 with the track only me; September 1997) against Sabrina Setlurs music producer Moses Pelham, an example was the case power plant ( March 1977 LP Trans Europe Express and the title thereto contained metal on metal ) equal to twice the BGH employed. At the oral pronouncement of judgment in December 2012 clarified the Supreme Court Senate Chairman said that in principle even the smallest parts of a song are protected by copyright and may therefore be taken only with the consent of the author. According to the BGH Although see the copyright for an exception to this rule in order to encourage creative activities. After that a musician should take such tone sequences from other pieces, if they could not simply be replayed because of their special nature.

Conversely, this means, according to the Supreme Court, that the one who wants to use the sounds for their own purposes, and " is able and authorized to make such einzuspielen myself," she can not accept. Tone sequences, which can be identified come from a different recordings and form a melody, may not be simply taken also. idea was that Setlur a two- second-long two-bar rhythm sequence from power plant metal taken from 1997 to metal and only highlighted in continuous repeat their title I had. the Supreme Court had come to the view that it would have been possible to merge the rhythm sequence acquired itself, so that the rights of the power plant had been violated. 's right for free use in accordance with § 24 Section 1 of the German Copyright Act stand to just someone who einspielt a melody yourself and him so that a reproduction of the actual reasons is possible.

Now, is that sampling is permitted if the new work to the acquired sound sequence holds such a large distance that it is to be regarded as independent and the signal sequence itself can not be recorded. For this is relevant, whether it is " an average- equipped and qualified music producer at the time of use of the foreign sound recording is possible to produce your own music piece that is the original when used in the same musical context from the perspective of the relevant public equivalent".

When sample - clearing process of the music producer is a fairly safe way. After all the desired samples are re-recorded by session musicians, so that only the approval of the original composer still needs to be obtained. On the approval of the original performers and phonogram producers which can be dispensed with. Meanwhile Sample Clearing is the norm in music production to avoid any and all rights for publications disputes regarding samples used.

Use

Musicians or producers, which began as the first sampling, are not limited to:

• Pierre Schaeffer (1948, musique concrète )
• John Cage (1962, William Mix)
• Will Brandes & Little Elizabeth - "Baby Twist" - Elizabeth Toddler voices are samples
• CAN ( 1969) Cutaway
• Pink Floyd (1973, Money )
• Throbbing Gristle (1977, The Second Annual Report)
• Kurtis Blow ( 19? , Hip Hop )
• Kate Bush (1980, Babooshka )
• Hubert Bogner, Harald Zuschrader (1981, " earth tone " )
• Jean Michel Jarre (1981, Magnetic Fields )
• Brian Eno (1981, My Life in the Bush of Ghosts )
• Peter Gabriel (1982, Shock The Monkey)
• Trevor Horn, including with The Art of Noise (1983 )
• Arno Steffen (1983, Beat )
• Coil (1984, Transparent)
• Fad Gadget (1984, Collapsing New People)
• Depeche Mode (1983, pipeline)
• Holger Hiller (1983, A bunch rot in the pit)
• Power plant (1986, Electric Café)

• DJ Shadow's album Endtroducing ..... is the first album, which consisted only of samples
• Computer jockeys worked as the first commercially successful chart Act 1997 with samples plus computer stand-alone ( without additional tone generator / MIDI) live with their own arrangements
• John Oswald used in his plunderphonics first time the micro sampling, Akufen led it on in the House - context