South America

South America is the southern part of the American double continent, has a population of nearly 400 million people and covers an area of 17,843,000 km ², the fourth largest continental land surface of the earth.

The subcontinent is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. The island of Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the subcontinent is separated across the Drake Passage from the neighboring continent of Antarctica. Just south of Tierra del Fuego is Cape Horn, where the Atlantic and Pacific meet. To the north there is a connection via the Isthmus of Panama to North America.

3.1 Conquest
3.2 independence

4.1 languages
4.2 religions
4.3 slavery

5.1 Natural Resources
5.2 Agriculture
5.3 organizations for economic cooperation

6.1 States in South America
6.2 Political alliances and organizations

Geography

The South American subcontinent can be divided into three major metropolitan areas:

The Andes as high mountains on the west side of the continent
Three river plains east of the Andes
Three highlands east of the Andes

On the west coast lies with the Andes, the longest mountain chain in the world overseas. The high mountains runs along the Pacific Ocean more than 7,500 miles from Venezuela to the southern tip of Patagonia along. The highest mountain in the Andes, at the same time the highest mountain in South America and the highest peak outside Asia, with 6,962 m height of the Aconcagua. It lies on the border between Argentina and Chile. The Laguna del Carbon, 105 meters below sea level, the lowest point in South America, is located in the San Julián Basin in Patagonia. As the southernmost point of South America is generally referred to Cape Horn.

The largest current level forms the Amazon Basin ( Amazonia ), an equatorial rain forest lowlands, which is drained by the Amazon and its tributaries about 10,000. The across the entire continent eastward flowing from the Andean Amazon is about 6448 km, the longest river in South America and the largest river of the world. To the north lies the Orinoco level that is limited to the Amazon Basin to the south by the highlands of Guyana and to the north by the Venezuelan coastal mountain country. Another current level is located in the south of the continent, where the river system from the Río Paraguay and Río Paraná is coming from the Pantanal in the north to the south in a subtropical flood plain.

The highlands are the Guiana Shield, the Brazilian highlands and the Ostpatagonische Bergland. The Guiana Shield is divided into the rainforest mountains Südvenezuelas, the central highlands of Guyana and the Eastern Guiana Shield, extending between the current level of the Orinoco and the Amazon, with a maximum elevation of up to 2,800 m. The central Brazilian highlands dominated Central America and stretches to the coast of Brazil and the pampas of Argentina in the south. The Ostpatagonische mountain land rises to the east of the Andes on the southern tip of South America.

For details, see Physical Geography of South America

Geology and Geomorphology

The Pacific side of South America is characterized by an active continental margin in the form of a subduction zone. The Atlantic continental side is passive. The eastern highlands of South America have a large Precambrian base pedestal on which of sandstones can be superimposed. The pelvic structures, the current levels are dominated by Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. In the south of the Patagonian platform forms the basis for the Patagonian mountains. The Andean orogenic belt consists mainly of volcanic - sedimentary blanket layers, nachpräkambrischen sedimentary basin and Central and jungpräkambrischen reason mountains. (after ZEIL 1986) The Andes are characterized by their location on the active continental margin as volcanism and earthquakes. South America was once a part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Instructions for this are the exact fit of Africa, significant basalt deposits which have been formed upon rupture at today's East Coast, the stroke directions from sandstones and signs of the Permian - Carboniferous glaciation. The southern South America is dominated by glacial series of quaternary glaciations. Geomorphological phenomena are glacial lakes, moraines and glacial runoff forms.

South America has the world economically significant deposits of raw materials and minerals. So ores, saltpeter, petroleum, coal and gold are mined.

Climate

The climate of South America is very complex. Year-round climatic influences are the cold Humboldt current along the west coast of Peru, the intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ), the formation of tropical cyclones on the edge of the subtropical high pressure area and the trade winds. The cold Humboldt ocean current causes a cooling of the sea surface off the coast of Peru and northern Chile, which leads to the formation of coastal deserts. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the cooled air to a constant inversion, thus resulting in a stable high pressure system that does not allow convection and thus no precipitation. The effects are vast desert regions on the coasts. The equatorial tropical location causes the formation of a southern winter Intertropical convection over the central Amazon region, leading to heavy rainfall. In the summer they moved further to the south, thus the inner tropics are characterized by year-round rainfall. Also in the summer continental thermal low is formed which is very rainy. The southern edge of the tropics were dominated by ( southern) summer precipitation. The northern edge of the tropics are characterized by trade jam in the east (all year high precipitation) and by cool sea water on the coast in the north ( very low rainfall).

The Südpassatwinde on the east coast lead to increased rainfall in the coastal regions, characterized by the formation in the austral summer monsunaler easterly winds and the southern winter storage by rainfall in the coastal regions. The stable high-pressure system on the western edge of South America in conjunction with the cold air masses in the southern polar regions leads to the formation of extratropical cyclones off the coast Westpatagoniens. The cyclonic fronts vary in their location in the austral summer and southern winter. The shift to the north in the southern winter leads to periodic winter rainfall in the Great Southern Chile ( Chile jungle ) and sporadic winter rainfall in the small southern Chile. In turn, the shift of the cyclonic fronts in the austral summer ( influenced by the changed position of the ITCZ ) to a pronounced summer drought across southern Chile leads, except Patagonia. The cyclonic fronts cause violent congestion precipitates, which can be referred to as hyper- maritime on the windward side of the Patagonian Andes Mountains. This type of dust deposits on the west side lead to the Andean - Patagonian leeward side is characterized by dryness.

The Andes themselves have a more climatic division in the vertical dimension. Universally, we can distinguish five height levels: the Tierra Caliente ( Warm Earth, to 1000 m), the Tierra Templada ( Temperate Earth, to 2000 m), the Tierra Fria ( Cold Earth, to 3500 m, cultivation limit and frost line ), the Tierra Helada ( Icy earth, to 4500 m, snow line ) and the Tierra Glacial ( glacial earth, to 6000 m, Anökumene ).

Furthermore, available in the Andes glaciations. In Peru, the largest inner- tropical glaciation of the world are to be found. In Patagonia there is an extensive continental glaciation and down reaching down to sea level glacier tongue.

One significant for Chile climate phenomenon El Niño is because even though it is from its origin, a purely oceanic phenomenon, especially its climatic consequences are perceived. The cold water currents off South America tear off and collects hot water off the South American coast. As a result, climatic thus abolishes the normally predominant stable high- pressure situation and there is a reversal of the Walker circulation, with significant consequences due to torrential rain.

Wildlife

Seen Zoogeographisch South America belongs to the Neotropical region, which includes Central America and the West Indies. The South American continent was isolated during most of the Cenozoic of the other continents. At that time, unique mammalian forms were out, some of which are still characteristic of South America. These include various marsupials, armadillos, anteaters and sloths. The New World monkeys and guinea pigs relatives also arrived very early ( probably from Africa ) as an island knights, on the Continent, and brought a great wealth of native species out. The rest of today's mammal fauna of the Neotropical region is, however, mostly from groups who immigrated about 3 million years ago from North America in the wake of the great American Faunenaustauschs. Back then wandered Artiodactyla (deer, camels, peccaries ), Perissodactyla ( tapirs ) hares, predators (cats, dogs, martens, bears, raccoons ), shrews and rodents families of the New world and squirrels from North America to South America a. In addition, at that time reached the mammoths and horses in South America, but at the end of the Pleistocene disappeared during the Quaternary extinctions. With them disappeared, numerous other large animals, such as giant sloths, glyptodons, Toxodonten, Macrauchenia and the saber-toothed cat Smilodon. Was South America until 12,000 years a continent of giants, so today is the Central American tapir is the largest land mammal on the continent. Jaguar and spectacled bear are the largest land predators dar.

History

According to the prevailing opinion on the settlement of America, the northern continent was populated by about 15,000 BC across the Bering Strait from Asian strains. In South America, the first traces of human 20000-10000 BC emerge. As the oldest American culture is considered the Valdivia culture in Ecuador in the 4th millennium BC In the 2nd millennium BC individual local cultures developed in South America. The earliest, still recognizable high culture was that of Chavín de Huántar, the BC to 300 existed about 800 BC. Furthermore, there was, among other things, the Paracas, Nazca, Moche, Chimu and Chachapoyas culture.

From about 1200 to 1532 ruled the Inca, probably the best known high culture of South America, over large parts of the continent and created a vast empire. By the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, the Inca empire was smashed.

Konquista

1494 South America in the Treaty of Tordesillas of Pope Alexander VI was. divided between Spain and Portugal. The eastern part, today Brazil was awarded to Portugal. Panama and the rest of the continent fell to Spain. Many Spanish and Portuguese missionaries arrived in the 15th and 16th centuries to South America and introduced Christianity. 90 % of South Americans to Catholicism - For this reason, today, about 80 belong.

In 1543 the viceroy of New Spain empires ( Mexico and Venezuela) and Peru were established (Spanish part of South America and Panama). 1717 Ecuador and Colombia sparked the Viceroyalty of Peru, and Venezuela formed with the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and Paraguay followed this example in 1776 and created the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.

Independence

The urge for independence it has slowed steadily. 1813 won for the first time insurgents in Caracas under the leader Simón Bolívar.

In the south, in 1816 Argentina -won independence. In the years 1817/1818 the independence of Chile followed. 1819 defeated the army of Simón Bolívar, the Spaniards in the Battle of Boyacá and thus freed Colombia. The independence of Ecuador was enforced in 1822 in the Battle of Pichincha. The army of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar united and won the decisive battle at Ayacucho in Peru on December 9, 1824. With this battle, the Spaniards finally moved back from South America. In Brazil, the independence movement took a slightly different course. Since the Portuguese royal house with entourage fleeing from Napoleon in 1808 fled to Brazil and therefore the actual capital of the Portuguese empire from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro was moved, Brazil was officially equated starting this year, in fact and in 1815 with Portugal. Independence was finally proclaimed in 1822 by the Portuguese Crown Prince Pedro and Brazil became a monarchy.

After independence from Spain Gran Colombia was created, consisting of the states of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. Short term to Peru and Bolivia joined the alliance. But in 1832 the Confederacy collapsed and finally made it to today's nation-states.

Population

Development of the population of South America (in millions)

On 1 January 2010 there were about 390 million people in South America. The population of South America is characterized by mixing of the peoples who were at home there as indigenous inhabitants and the ethnic groups who have settled here later. The latter were mostly European immigrants or trafficked here from Africa slaves. Thus, the proportion of the mestizo, the mulatto and Zambos predominates. In Brazil, the Afro - Latin Americans form a larger proportion of the population as descendants of slaves kidnapped from Africa. Remnants of the indigenous people live almost exclusively in the Andean highlands and the Amazon region. Only in some countries are the indigenous peoples a significant proportion of the population, as in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.

Languages

Because South America was divided in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, Portuguese is spoken in Brazil in its Brazilian variant, while in almost all other South American countries, the national language is Spanish. Only in Suriname Dutch as an official language, and Sranan Tongo is spoken as a lingua franca, in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago English and in French Guiana, which, however, is not an independent state but a French Overseas Territory, is French.

Other European languages , which are common in South America, are English ( partly in Argentina), German (in the south of Brazil and Chile, Argentina, Paraguay and German varieties of Venezuela ) and the Low German Plautdietsch, Italian ( in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela ) and Welsh ( in southern Argentina ).

In Bolivia, indigenous languages are - partly alongside Spanish - spoken by more than half of the population. Quechua and Aymara are spoken by far the most, followed by the spoken in the eastern lowlands Guaraní. Since 2009, all indigenous languages of Bolivia are recognized by the constitution along with Spanish as official languages . In Peru, Quechua and Aymara are officially recognized regional languages besides Spanish. The spread in the highlands of Ecuador, with Quechua related Kichwa ( Quichua or ) is not there, although the official language, but constitutionally recognized. Guaraní is one of the official languages alongside Spanish in Paraguay, where it is used by a bilingual majority. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken in the country, as official languages , but it involves less than one percent of native speakers. The most widely spoken indigenous language in Chile is Mapudungun ( " Araucanian ") of the Mapuche in southern Chile, next are common in northern Chile Aymara and Rapa Nui on Easter Island.

Religions

The vast majority of the population is committed to the Roman Catholic faith. Since about 1960, especially here, liberation theology, but of Pope John Paul II and the then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and later pope Benedict XVI. Developed was fought. The proportion of Catholics since then constantly takes from, and above all free churches and sects are enjoying the feed.

Slavery

Until the late 19th century, African slaves were mainly used for the export-oriented plantations in the Caribbean basin, on the Pacific Coast and in Brazil. Slavery was abolished in Brazil until 1888, thus later than in almost all other countries.

Typical haciendas in the highlands secured the dependence of indigenous people by the farm workers were allocated a small parcel of land and had provided in return for the patrón work performance. The systematic attitude of addicts in relatively closed social haciendas system lasted well into the 20th century on.

Economy

In South America, the differences between rich and poor are great. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil and many other South American countries have the richest 20 % of the population 60 % of financial assets, while the poorest 20 % have less than 5 % of financial assets.

Mineral resources

The mining industry has played a significant role in many pre-colonial cultures of South America. One of the main reasons for the Conquest was the subjugation of Indian gold and silver rich, with the legend of El Dorado played a not insignificant role.

The Andes of South America are particularly rich in metal resources, and so are in the central Andean belt to find some of the world's largest copper, tin, gold and silver deposits. The most important kupfererzfördernde country in 2006 was by far Chile and among the five largest Zinnförderländern are three (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil) in South America. Add the salt lakes mainly by Chile (eg Salar de Atacama ) and Bolivia (eg Salar de Uyuni ) are the largest deposits of lithium salts, which are not yet part degraded.

The occurrence of fossil fuels are significant. The countries in the Orinoco delta in the northwest of the continent have large share of the petroleum reserves: Venezuela is already among the world's largest oil-producing countries and in Brazil a deposit was discovered in 2007, which is expected to be the largest oil reserves in the world.

Accordingly, the export of natural resources for the countries of South America, the most important source of foreign currency represents the exploration and exploitation of the deposits always leads to territorial and cultural conflict between the interests of business and the indigenous population. In particular, with oil production are massive environmental problems observed: deforestation, road construction, soil and water contamination lead, especially in the Amazon basin, where many indigenous people to nature to live in a sensitive ecosystem, to destruction of the ecological balance.

Agriculture

The agricultural structures were minted until the 20th century of colonial influences. To date, the land is either held in huge estates of the large landowners or operated by subsistence farmers.

During the Spanish conquest, first the system of encomienda was ( Spanish for " order" ). Target was a profitable agricultural colonial beings without the formation of an autonomous hereditary nobility. For this purpose, the Spanish conquistadors were transferred extensive land holdings in trust. Feudal lord was the King of Spain, of the encomendero ( " Contractor") entrusted the task to cultivate the land and to provide for the protection and missionary living there indigenous population. In its practical implementation, these third-party management is, however, regarded as a particularly despicable form of slavery, because the indigenous population presented no financial value for the landlords and is often maltreated was therefore lightly to death.

Although the institution of encomienda was formally until 1791, but it has been since 1549 successively by the repartimiento ( in German " allocation " ) replaced. In repartimiento system Amerindian communities were required to provide the State from among its workforce.

After gaining independence, the " fiduciary " large estates were converted into private ownership and although the Hacienda (Spanish ) or fazenda ( Portuguese) mentioned farms were much smaller, they often included tens of thousands of acres of land. For these large estates until today, the concept of latifundia in use.

In many South American countries, there are now efforts to distribute equitable ownership in land reforms. Somewhat effectively implemented these were but so far only in Venezuela and Peru. The in Nicaragua conducted by the Sandinistas reform has now been made to significant portions of undo. In Brazil, the Movimento dos Sem Terra Trabalhadores Rurais fighting for an extensive land reform.

Organizations for economic cooperation

The Andean countries founded in 1969 the Andean Community as International Organization for economic, political and social integration. Member States are Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.

The Amazon Pact was established in 1978 to strengthen the economic cooperation of the Amazon countries. Main idea was the sustainable development of the Amazon basin. For this pact was on 2 September 2003, the Organização do Tratado de Cooperação Amazônica ( ACTO ) show, which also undertake the riparian countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Colombia, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela) the structured economic development of the Amazon.

In order to establish a common market in 1991 was followed by the creation of the Southern Common Market (short: Mercosur Spanish: Common Market of the South). All three communities could be replaced in the medium by the Union of South American Nations as a genuine community of the twelve South American countries.

Political Structures

The South American countries are geopolitically divided as follows:

Andean countries: Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile. These countries have specific ethnic, linguistic and cultural similarities, such as the use of Quechua as well as the Adobe design. As a result of the history of the Inca Empire, which stretched in this region approximately between 800 and 1500, the term " Andean countries " to this day is used as a term for the common cultural space.
La Plata countries: Argentina and Uruguay. Common to both countries is the direct location on the Río de la Plata, the 290 km long and up to 220 km wide estuary of the great South American streams Paraná and Uruguay.
Cono Sur: Argentina, Chile and Uruguay.
Caribbean countries: Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. These countries are often classified according to their colonial history as well as its economic and transport relations with the Caribbean islands with the Caribbean.
Trinidad and Tobago are traditionally counted among the Caribbean islands and thus to Central America. However, the main island of Trinidad is located on the South American continental shelf and is also culturally influenced by the neighboring Venezuela.
Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao ( ABC Islands ) are among the Leeward Islands, an archipelago off the coast of Venezuela, which is traditionally regarded as part of the Lesser Antilles and is therefore also often counted to Central America.
Brazil is seen due to its size as an independent unit

Countries in South America

Political alliances and organizations

The Union of South American Nations is founded in 2008, Community of twelve South American countries. In the certificate of incorporation is as a Union objective of the fight against " inequality, social exclusion, hunger, poverty and insecurity, " defined. By 2025, to be achieved with a single currency, a South American Parliament # Function Parliament and uniform passports a similar integration of the European Union. With French Guiana, an overseas department of France, the European Union extends even to South America and has been with Suriname and Brazil an external border.

Whether is to be expected with a real intergovernmental cooperation in the medium term, currently appears questionable, because the previous South American countries alliances Mercosur and the Andean Pact are characterized by a rather low desire for integration and a lack of willingness of its members to assign extensive powers to the supranational alliances.

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